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State University of New York Press - Anthony F. C. Wallace

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179 pages

English

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Tuscarora is the comprehensive history of the small Iroquois Indian reservation community just north of Niagara Falls in western New York. The Tuscaroras consider themselves to be a sovereign nation, independent of the United States and the State of New York. They have preserved a system of social organization and ideal public values, along with the Tonawanda Seneca and the Onondagas that retains matrilineal clans, and a Council of Chiefs nominated by the clan matrons. Over the course of their existence, however, the Tuscarora have faced many struggles. Stemming from over sixty years of research, Anthony F. C. Wallace follows their story of overcoming war and loss of population, migration from North Carolina in the 1700s, the emotional trauma and social disorders resulting from discrimination and abusive conditions in residential boarding schools, and successful adaption to urban industrial society. Wallace weaves together historical detail, ethnography, and his own personal reflections to offer a unique and sweeping look at this fascinating group of people.
Acknowledgments

Prologue: Living in Historical Time

1. Welcome to Skaru’re

Our Visit in 1948–1949
Landscape
Fitting In
The Rorschach Project
Recording Tuscarora Texts

2. Tuscarora Fifty Years Later

The Bissell Family
Orientation
Changes and Persistence
Diversity and Forbearance
Gender Balance
Churches and Spirituality
Work and Play
The World Off the Reserve

3. The Tuscarora in North Carolina: Peace, War, and Exodus

The History Group
First Encounters 1521–1650
The Tuscarora War 1711–1713
Migration and Dispersal
The Communities at Onaquaga and Niagara
Factions

4. Policies of Accommodation

The Success of the Family Farm
Christian Missions versus the “Old Religion”
The Temperance Society
Baptist Traditionalism
Voices of Accommodation: Cusick, Johnson, Hewitt
Combining the Best of Both Cultures

5. Ethnostess: Selves Lost and Found

The Concept of Ethnostress
The Denial of Reciprocity
The Reservation Schools at Tuscarora
The Thomas Indian School
Coping with Ethnostress

6. Siege, Resistance, and Renewal

Land Claims and the Doctrine of Discovery
The Reservoir
The Enduring Siege
Voices of Resistance: Clinton Rickard, Ted Williams, Mad Bear

7. Family: Household, Clan, and the Woman’s Line

The Matrilineal Clan
The Paternal Lineage
Enrollment
Marriage and Kinship Terminology
Land and Kinship
Genealogical Records
Blood Quantum

8. Governance: Nation, Community, and Confederacy

The Council of Chiefs
The Business council vs. Traditional Chiefs’ Council
The Meetings of Clans and Clan Mothers
The Haudenosaunee Confederacy

9. Preserving the Cycle of Life

Growing Up Indian
Creation and the Good Mind
The Thanksgiving Address
Environmentalism
The Medicines and Spiritual Powers
The Condolence Ceremony
Preserving the Cycle of Life

Epilogue: Saving the Seventh Generation

In Memoriam: A Tribute to My Big Sister
Notes on Sources
Bibliography
Index

Sujets

Region

Indigenous peoples

History of the Americas

Anthropology

Regional

Informations

Publié par	State University of New York Press
Date de parution	15 novembre 2012
Nombre de lectures	0
EAN13	9781438444314
Langue	English

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Tribal Worlds: Critical Studies in American Indian Nation Building

Brian Hosmer and Larry Nesper, editors

Tuscarora
A History
Anthony F. C. Wallace

Cover Map: Guy Johnson and E. B. O'Callaghan. To His Excellency William Tryon Esqr., Captain General & Governor in Chief of the Province of New-York & &: This Map of the Country of the VI. Nations Proper, with Part of the Adjacent Colonies Is Humbly Inscribed . Albany, N.Y.: C. Van Benthuysen, 1851. Published in O'Callaghan, E.B. The documentary history of the state of New York. 1851, v. 4, p. 661. Courtesy of Stony Brook University Libraries.
Published by State University of New York Press, Albany
© 2012 State University of New York
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission. No part of this book may be stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means including electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior permission in writing of the publisher.
For information, contact State University of New York Press, Albany, NY www.sunypress.edu
Production by Eileen Meehan
Marketing by Kate McDonnell
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Wallace, Anthony F. C., 1923–
Tuscarora : a history / Anthony F. C. Wallace.
p. cm. — (Tribal worlds: critical studies in American Indian nation building)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4384-4429-1 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Tuscarora Indians—History. 2. Tuscarora Indians—Social life and customs. I. Title.
E99.T9.W33 2012
305.897'55—dc23
2012000731
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

To Wendy and Jim, and Mina and Terrie Bear and Monty, and to the Tuscarora Nation
Acknowledgments
My first acknowledgment must be to the Tuscarora community, particularly to the members and friends of the Bissell family network, and most especially to Jim and Wendy Bissell, in whose house I lived for several years. They have treated me as “family” and helped me in my research and in many of the concerns of living. To many other individuals, some of whom are not named in the text, I owe a debt of gratitude for their hospitality and for sharing their knowledge of Tuscarora history and present-day life on the Reserve. But I want to mention a few: the members of the Chiefs' Council, including Leo Henry, Kenneth Patterson, and Stuart Patterson; Eli and Lena Rickard, Jay and Theresa Clause, Lois Jircitano, Norton and Marlene Rickard, Donald and Alexis Robinson and their daughter Arien, Walter and Frances Printup, Cyril and Agnes Printup and their family, Brian Printup, and his partner Neil Patterson, Jr., Director of the Environmental Program, Claudia Troiano, and the teachers in the Tuscarora Culture program, Betsy Bissell, JoAnne Weinholtz, and Vince Schiffert.
Several members of the academic community have been particularly encouraging and supportive: Richard Hill, Jr., Oren Lyons, and John Mohawk, Haudenosaunee scholars, faculty and consultants at SUNY Buffalo, the National Museum of the American Indian, and other institutions; Donald Smith, historian at the University of Calgary, and always helpful friend of the Wallace family; Gary Dunham, former Director of SUNY Press (and formerly of the University of Nebraska Press, which has published several books of mine); Coralie Hughes, who sponsored the John Neihardt Lecture at SUNY Press; Deborah Holler, a member of the faculty at Empire State College, who has been my partner in research on the life of Caroline Parker Mt. Pleasant and the history of the Tuscarora community; Robert Grumet, an anthropologist formerly employed by the National Park Service to identify Native American historic sites in the northeastern states; Phillips Stevens, Jr., and Denise Szafran, anthropologists, University of Buffalo; Larry Hauptman, historian, SUNY New Palz; Barbara Graymont, historian, and Regna Darnell, anthropologist, University of Western Ontario.
Staff members of several libraries and museums have given me indispensable help and guidance in using their collections. At the Library of the American Philosophical Society I worked with the Ely Parker Collection, the William Fenton Papers, and the Tuscarora and other Iroquois tape recordings, notes of interviews, and copies of manuscripts in the Wallace Family Collection. My special thanks go to the former Library Director, the late “Ted” Carter; his successor Martin Leavitt; Valerie Lutz, curator of manuscript collections; Roy Goodman, reference librarian; and Tim Powell, Director of the Society's language revitalization activities (including Tuscarora). At the University of Rochester Rush Reese Library, Deborah Holler and I were aided in working with the Lewis Henry Morgan Collection by Nancy Martin and her staff; at the Rochester Museum of Science and History, we were assisted by George Hamel and Adele de Rosa. The staff of the library of the Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society guided us to printed and manuscript materials we did not expect to find. Katherine Collett at the Library of Hamilton College gave us access to Samuel Kirkland's 1789 census of the Six Nations. Elizabeth Pope at the Library of the American Antiquarian Society provided copies of James Crane's Tuscarora spelling book and catechism. The libraries at the University of Pennsylvania, the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, the University of Buffalo Law Library, the Niagara Falls Public Library, and the Niagara County Historical Society have all been the source of valuable information on Tuscarora history and culture.
And special thanks to the editorial staff who carried on after the abrupt departure of the former editor, including Eileen Meehan, Amanda Lanne, Kate McDonnell, and Kelli Williams-LeRoux.
Prologue
Living in Historical Time
This book is about the importance of national sovereignty and of traditional ideal standards of responsible social behavior among the Tuscarora Indians. Tuscarora is a sovereign Indian nation living on a reservation in western New York State. It is one of the Six Nations of the Haudenosaunee or Iroquois Confederacy. Sovereignty means to the Tuscaroras freedom from interference or intrusion, legal or physical (except when allowed by treaty or contract), by the state of New York or the government of the United States. Sovereignty enables the Nation to preserve an egalitarian ethos of personal freedom, voluntary responsibility for the welfare of the community, and a spirituality of thanksgiving to the Creator. Awareness of being a member of a sovereign Indian nation is essential to the self-respect of individuals.
However, maintaining sovereignty as a nation has not been easy. The Tuscaroras are survivors of 500 years of contact with European invaders, enduring epidemics, war, and migration in a world of changing empires and rapid industrialization. In the process they have lost 90 percent of their population and 100 percent of their original territory in North Carolina; their day-to-day language is English, and most of the people are Christians. They have lived and still live, in their view of historical time, under a constant state of siege by the White society surrounding them.
Thus the perspective in which the Tuscarora Nation is seen in this work combines the view of the ethnographer on the present day and the view of the historian on the past. This combination of ethnographic and historical points of view is necessary because the community itself lives in historical time, in what I have termed an Historia, a tapestry of time that extends from the Creation to the end of the world. People react “now” to events that happened in the past, are happening, or are expected to happen in the future. Each generation is responsible for preserving the sovereignty of the Nation, maintaining its values, and ensuring the welfare of the next seven generations.
I first visited Tuscarora in 1948 as a graduate student. My assignment was to do research for my doctoral dissertation on the “modal personality” of Tuscarora Indians, and to make wire recordings of the Tuscarora language. Later I shall evaluate the Rorschach study in more detail and make my apologies for ethical shortcomings in its use, and my failure to fully recognize my helpers in the community as friends as well as hosts.
There turned out to be an important continuity between my earlier study and this one. In 1948, I was impressed by the high degree of diversity in the Rorschach profiles I collected. This diversity was for the field of anthropology a more important finding than what I had to say about Tuscarora modal personality. When I returned in 2004 to live at Tuscarora, and later in the nearby village of Youngstown, I was struck again by the diversity of Tuscarora lives. I asked how has this egalitarian, diverse community survived and preserved its major kinship and political institutions since before the United States existed? I was led to recognize the elements of a Tuscarora mentality, a traditional ethos that was integral to this survival.
Three features of the traditional ethos, this indigenous mentality, stand out for me: the values of personal freedom, voluntary service to the community, and spirituality. Basic to this ethos is a philosophy of gentle and permissive rearing of children in the family and to the extent possible in the elementary school on the reserve.
Many Tuscaroras—along with other Indigenous peoples—believe that all the elements of Creation possess consciousness, purpose, and spiritual power. This awareness of a living universe is shared by church-going Christians and Longhouse follo