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Foundations of Learning: Language, Cognition and Social Relationships

The Perkins Activity and Resource Guide is a handbook for teachers and parents of students with visual and multiple disabilities.

In this chapter we have combined the topics of communication, social relationships, and cognition, because it is critical that teachers think of these as integral parts of each activity and not as isolated classes to be taught at a specific time during the day. These areas must be addressed throughout the day in all activities.

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Publié par	eBookIt.com
Date de parution	27 mai 2013
Nombre de lectures	0
EAN13	9780988171312
Langue	English
Poids de l'ouvrage	1 Mo

Informations légales : prix de location à la page 0,0448€. Cette information est donnée uniquement à titre indicatif conformément à la législation en vigueur.

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Perkins Activity
and
Resource Guide
Chapter 2
Foundations of Learning: Language, Cognition, and Social Relationships

by
Charlotte Cushman

edited by
Marianne Riggio

©2012, reissued as an e-book. ©2004 Perkins School for the Blind, 2nd edition. All rights reserved.

Published in eBook format by Perkins School for the Blind
Converted by http://www.eBookIt.com

Every effort has been made to acknowledge commercial products mentioned in this publication whose names are trademarks or registered trademarks.

ISBN-13: 978-0-9881-7131-2

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means including information storage and retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the author. The only exception is by a reviewer, who may quote short excerpts in a review.

Produced in USA

Funding for this publication was provided by The Conrad N. Hilton Foundation of Reno, Nevada, in cooperation with the Hilton/Perkins National and International Program.

Perkins School for the Blind, Watertown, Massachusetts
Contents
CHAPTER 1
Teaching Children with Multiple Disabilities: An Overview
CHAPTER 2
Foundations of Learning: Language, Cognition, and Social Relationships
CHAPTER 3
Motor Development: Gross and Fine Motor Skills
CHAPTER 4
Functional Academics
CHAPTER 5
Vocational Skills for All Ages
CHAPTER 6
Daily Living Skills
CHAPTER 7
Independent Living Skills
CHAPTER 8
Sensory Integration
CHAPTER 9
Developmental Music
CHAPTER 10
Orientation and Mobility
CHAPTER 11
Enhancing the Use of Functional Vision
CHAPTER 12
Adaptive Technology: Handmade Solutions for Unique Problems
CHAPTER 13
Techniques for Lifting Students Safely: Body Mechanics and Transfers
CHAPTER 14
Assistive Devices and Equipment
GLOSSARY
INDEX
CHAPTER 2
Foundations of Learning: Language, Cognition, and Social Relationships

by Charlotte Cushman, M.Ed.

Acknowledgments
Special thanks to the following individuals who read this chapter and/ or offered ideas, information, and helpful criticism: Lisa Jacobs, Susan DeCaluwe, Marianne Riggio, Barbara McLetchie, Barbara Miles, Mary Morse, Jean Small. Also thanks to Tami Murphy, Cindy O’Connell, Patti Bastriani and Cindy Coon for sharing their photographic talents.
Chapter Outline
Introduction
Social Relationships Are the Foundation of All Learning
Exposure to Language
Conversational Dialogue
Turn-Taking
Topics
Physical Comfort and Positioning
Pacing
Creating a Dynamic Learning Environment
Making Choices
Developing a Routine
Using a Whole Task Approach
Embedding Language in All Experiences
Encouraging Participation in Daily Events
Accessing the Environment
Exploring Objects Through Play
Learning Concepts in the Natural Setting
Integrating Skills Across Domains
Modes of Communication
Communicating Using Objects, Pictures, Print, and Braille
Using Objects Conversationally
Touch and Object Cues
Setting Up an Object Communications System
Selecting Object Symbols
Developing an Object Calendar
Involving the Student in the Whole Process
Moving to More Abstract Levels of Communication
Additional Strategies to Encourage Communication
Activity Sequence Boards
Story Boxes: Using Objects to Illustrate Stories
Resources
Suggested Materials
Distributors
Screening Checklist
Additional Resources
Videos
Tools for Assessment
Bibliography
Glossary

Introduction
Vision and hearing play a critical role in the development of our social relationships and in the formation of concepts about the world around us. As a baby watches passively from an infant seat or high chair, he is beginning to put order to objects and events long before he will fully participate in the daily routines of life. During this same period of a child’s life, parents and caregivers respond to the child in ways that make him feel safe and secure. A reaction to a cry, the natural imitation of the child’s often random sounds, and the exchange of looks are examples of the rhythm of interaction that develops an emotional attachment. This bond is the basis of social and communication development.
Day after day, by watching and interacting with parents and caregivers, the child begins to develop memory, understand important concepts, and build social relationships. For the child who is born with a visual impairment and additional disabilities, these opportunities for early bonding and communication experiences are lessened. She cannot exchange eye gaze and may often receive distorted and fragmented information about the world that surrounds her. For example, as a sighted child watches his mother prepare breakfast day after day, he begins to remember that the cereal is stored in a specific cupboard, the milk is kept in the refrigerator, the bowls in another cupboard, and the spoons in the drawer. The concepts of object permanence, sequencing, anticipation, and knowledge of object function are all developing, even though the child may not seem to be involved at all. For the child with a significant visual impairment, however, the experience may be limited to the spoonful of cereal touching his lips. Likewise, the child who is visually impaired may express happiness in a different way than other children (e.g., through hand or leg movements), and these expressions often go unrecognized, diminishing the desire of others to sustain social interaction.
Specialized early intervention services can help families recognize and encourage the development of important social, communication, and cognitive skills. However, even with the most earnest efforts on the part of the family to create meaningful social interactions with their child and to provide him with firsthand experiences of the world that surrounds him, the child who is visually impaired and has additional disabilities will still have difficulty in developing the skills that are the foundation for all learning.
As the child who is sighted and is without other disabilities enters school, he has most often developed very important social, cognitive, and communication skills that prepare him for more formal academic study. On the other hand, the child who is visually impaired and has additional disabilities must be formally taught the skills that other children learn in an incidental way.
In this chapter we have combined the topics of communication, social relationships, and cognition, because it is critical that teachers think of these as integral parts of each activity and not as isolated classes to be taught at a specific time during the day. These areas must be addressed throughout the day in all activities.

Social Relationships Are the Foundation of All Learning
We begin to learn about the world around us through our connections with other people. Our earliest interactions are with our parents or caregivers, and this time together is the foundation for the development of communication, cognitive, and social skills. By observing and responding to a child’s signals (crying, laughter, body movements, vocalizations), an adult begins to engage in a dialogue with the child. Through these dialogues, the child learns how to communicate her wants and needs, and also begins to develop a basic understanding of the world (“If I do this, I can make something happen”). At the same time, the child starts to understand simple social behaviors, such as taking turns. If the child is blind or visually impaired, particularly if she has additional disabilities (such as developmental delays or physical challenges), this early interaction may be affected. Through the use of sound and touch, and by making use of her residual vision, the child who is blind or visually impaired can still develop this first bond of trust, which is the basis for all learning.
The world can seem like a frightening and unpredictable place to a child who cannot see. While it is important to provide a safe physical environment where the child can feel comfortable reaching out and moving, it is equally important to help the child feel safe by letting her know what will happen next. Children who are blind do not pick up visual cues from the environment, and without specific cues they may be startled when approached or moved. It is, therefore, essential to let the child know when you arrive or leave, who you are, and what you are going to do. Typical children may observe parents putting on coats and picking up the car keys, and infer from this that they are about to go out. A child who is blind, however, may not be able to anticipate that this is going to happen and may, therefore, be startled when the parent approaches her to take her outside. Similarly, a child who is sighted will be able to watch her brother get a cup out of the cabinet, go to the refrigerator, pour juice into the cup, and walk toward her with the cup. A blind child may be surprised when the cup of juice is put to her lips (particularly if she has difficulty interpreting auditory information). It is important to tell the child what will happen next and to supplement verbal information with consistent, meaningful touch and object cues.

Exposure to Language
All children must be exposed to tens of thousands of words before they begin to understand their meanings and, eventually, use these words to express themselves. The adult does not correct the child’s attempts to vocalize or make gestures in these early stages, but rather responds to them and models them in a nondirective way.

Modeling Appropriate Language
One way children learn language is when a parent or caregiver recognizes the attempt of the child to communicate and models the word that the child is attempting to express. For example, perhaps the grandmother enters the room while the father is playing with the child. The child might smile and coo in response to the grandmother’s greeting, and the father might say, “Nana is here.” Or a child may reach toward his bot