Scientific American, Volume XLIII., No. 25, December 18, 1880 - A Weekly Journal of Practical Information, Art, Science, - Mechanics, Chemistry, and Manufactures.
Description
The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American, Volume XLIII., No. 25, December 18, 1880, by Various This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: Scientific American, Volume XLIII., No. 25, December 18, 1880 A Weekly Journal of Practical Information, Art, Science, Mechanics, Chemistry, and Manufactures. Author: Various Release Date: April 15, 2007 [EBook #21081] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** Produced by Verity White, Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (Entered at the Post Office of New York, N. Y., as Second Class Matter) A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL INFORMATION, ART, SCIENCE, MECHANICS, CHEMISTRY, AND MANUFACTURES. Vol. XLIII., No. 25. $3.20 per Annum. [New Series.] [POSTAGE PREPAID.] NEW YORK, DECEMBER 18, 1880. Contents. (Illustrated articles are marked with an asterisk.) Air engine, new 385 Amateur mechanics* 390 American Institute of Architects 389 Architects, American Institute 389 Arctic winter, characteristics of 393 Aquarium (29) 395 Balance attach.
Informations
| Publié par | shouk |
| Publié le | 08 décembre 2010 |
| Nombre de lectures | 55 |
| Langue | English |
| Poids de l'ouvrage | 3 Mo |
Extrait
T h e
P r o j e c t
G u t e n b e r g
E B o o k
o f
S c i e n t i f i c
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2 5 ,
D e c e m b e r
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1 8 8 0 ,
b y
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a n y o n e
a n y w h e r e
a t
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a n d
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a l m o s t
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i n c l u d e d
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t h i s
e B o o k
o r
o n l i n e
a t
w w w . g u t e n b e r g . o r g
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S c i e n t i f i c
A m e r i c a n ,
V o l u m e
X L I I I . ,
N o .
2 5 ,
D e c e m b e r
1 8 ,
1 8 8 0
A
W e e k l y
J o u r n a l
o f
P r a c t i c a l
I n f o r m a t i o n ,
A r t ,
S c i e n c e ,
M e c h a n i c s ,
C h e m i s t r y ,
a n d
M a n u f a c t u r e s .
A u t h o r :
V a r i o u s
R e l e a s e
D a t e :
A p r i l
1 5 ,
2 0 0 7
[ E B o o k
# 2 1 0 8 1 ]
L a n g u a g e :
E n g l i s h
C h a r a c t e r
s e t
e n c o d i n g :
I S O - 8 8 5 9 - 1
* * *
S T A R T
O F
T H I S
P R O J E C T
G U T E N B E R G
E B O O K
S C I E N T I F I C
A M E R I C A N
* * *
P r o d u c e d
b y
V e r i t y
W h i t e ,
J u l i e t
S u t h e r l a n d
a n d
t h e
O n l i n e
D i s t r i b u t e d
P r o o f r e a d i n g
T e a m
a t
h t t p : / / w w w . p g d p . n e t
(E ntered at the P ost O f ice of New Y ork, N. Y ., as S econd Class M at er)
A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL
INFORMATION, ART, SCIENCE,
MECHANICS, CHEMISTRY, AND
MANUFACTURES.
Vol. XLI I., No. 25.
[New Series.]
$3.20 per Annum.
[POSTAGE PREPAID.]
NEW YORK, DECEMBER 18, 1880.
Contents.
(Il ustrated articles are marked with an asterisk.)
Air engine, new
385
Amateur mechanics*
390
American Institute of Architects
389
Architects, American Institute
389
Arctic winter, characteristics of
393
Aquarium (29)
395
Balance at ach. for valves*
386
Band saw, hand power*
387
Barometer, chemical (15)
394
Bat ery, Leclanche, to renew
(13)
394
Beetle, Hercules, the*
391
Belts, capacity of (12)
394
Business col eges*
383
,
388
Carbons, to solder (20)
395
Chinese women's feet*
393
Chisels, tempering
389
Col eges, business*
383
,
388
Engine, air, new
385
Engine, steam, single-acting*
390
Eruption of Mauna Loa
385
Exhibition of bathing
appliances
393
Feet, Chinese women's*
393
Fires—causes and prevention
384
Glass spinning and weaving
385
Gun, submarine, new
387
Harbor at Montreal, the
387
Hercules beetle, the*
391
Horse-power of turbines (12)
394
Ice at high temperatures
393
Ice, removing from railroads*
387
Induction coil for transmit er (14)
394
Induction coil, smal (26)
395
Invention, schools of
393
Inventions, miscel aneous
390
Inventions, recent
387
Knots, learning to tie
392
Leaves, variegation of
392
Light, what is?
384
London underground railway
389
Mantis, the embrace of the
391
Mechanics, amateur*
390
Montreal, the harbor at
387
Noise, to deaden (9)
394
Nut, safety, improved*
386
Packard's Business Col ege*
383
,
388
Patents, decisions relating to
393
Petroleum prospects
386
Photos, to color (10)
394
Poultry raising, mechanical
391
Railway, underground, London
389
Safety nut, improved*
386
Safety valve, improved*
386
Schools of invention
393
Screw-cut ing foot lathe (11)
394
Steamers, Col ins line of
393
Steam heating, return pipe (17)
394
Steel, to tin (28)
395
Submarine gun, new
387
Sun dial, to adjust (27)
395
Telegraph insulator, new*
387
Telegraph wires underground
385
Valve, safety, improved*
386
Valves, balance at achment for*
386
Vanil a, cinnamon, cocoanut
392
Vennor's winter predictions
389
Vessels, sunken, raising
386
Winter predictions, Vennor's
389
Zinc, to amalgamate (23)
395
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N EW YO R K , SA TU R D A Y, D EC EM B ER 18, 1880.
TABLE OF CONTENTS OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT
N O . 259.
For the Week ending December 18, 1880.
Price 10 cents. For sale by al newsdealers.
page
I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.—Frager's Water
Meter. 3 figures.—Vertical section, horizontal section, and
plan
4119
Transmission of Power to a Distance.—Wire ropes—
Compressed air—Water pressure.—Electricity
4120
The Livadia at Sea
4120
The Her eshof Launch
4121
New Steering Gear. 2 figures.—Steam steering gear for
Her eshof launch
4121
I . TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.—Glucose
4126
American Manufacture of Corn Glucose
4126
The Conversions—Starch—Dextrine.—Complete glucose
4126
Depreciation of a Glucose Factory
4126
The Fire Risks of Glucose Factories and Manufactures
4126
Glucose Factory Fires and Ignitions
4127
The Hirsh Process. By Adolf H. Hirsh—Improvement in the
manufacture of sugar from Corn
4127
Time in the Formation of salts. By M. Berthelot
4127
An Old Can of Preserved Meat By G. W. Wigner
4127
Chemistry for Amateurs. 6 figures.—Reaction between nitric
acid and iron.—Experiment with Pharaoh's serpents.—
Formation of crystals of iodide of cyanogen—Experiment
with ammoniacal amalgam.—Pyrophorus burning in contact
with the air.—Gold leaf suspended over mercury
4128
Carbonic Acid in the Atmosphere. 2 figures
4129
On Potash Ful ing Soaps By W. J. Menzies
4129
Photography of the Invisible
4134
I I. ELECTRICITY. LIGHT, HEAT, ETC.—Exhibition of Gas
and Electric Light Apparatus, Glasgow
4125
Electric Light in the German Navy. 1 il ustration. Armored
Frigates Friedrich Karl and Sachsen.—Dispatch Boat Gril e,
and Torpedo Boat il uminated by Electric Light
4130
Interesting Facts about Gas and Electricity.—Gas as Fuel.—
Gas for Fire Grates
4130
A New Electric Motor and its Applications. 6 figures.
Trouve's New Electric Motor
4131
On Heat and Light. By Robert Ward
4131
Photophonic Experiments of Prof. Bel and Mr. Tainter. By
A. Bregult
4132
Distribution of Light in the Solar Spectrum. By J. Mace and
W. Nicati
4132
Mounting Microscopic Objects
4132
New Sun Dial. By M. Groot en. 1 figure
4132
Antoine Cesar Becquerel, with portrait
4132
IV. HYGIENE AND MEDICINE.—On the Etiology of the
Carbuncular Disease. By L. Pasteur, assisted by
Chamberland and Roux. An extremely valuable
investigation of the nature, causes, and conditions of animal
plagues
4133
Report on Yel ow Fever in the U. S. Steamer Plymouth. By
the Surgeon-General in U. S. Navy
4134
Fuchsin in Bright's Disease
4134
V. ART, ARCHITECTURE, ETC.—Artists' Homes. No. 7. Sir
Frederick Leighton's House and Studio. 10 figures.
Perspective, plan, elevation details, etc.
4121
Initials by Eisenlohr and Weigle, in Stut gart. Ful page
4123
Suggestions in Decorative Art. 1 figure. Reserved part of a
Great Saloon. By H. Penox, Paris
4124
Great Saloon (Text)
4124
Cologne Cathedral The Historical Procession
4124
Suggestions in Decorative Art. 1 figure. Mantlepiece in
Walnut. By E. Carpenter
4125
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FIRES—CAUSES AND PREVENTION.
It is estimated that the total annual losses of insured property by fire,
throughout the world, average nearly two hundred mil ion dol ars.
Add to this the annual destruction of uninsured property, and we
should probably have a total amounting to quite double these figures.
How great the loss, how severe the tax upon the productive industry
of mankind, this enormous yearly destruction amounts to, wil come
home to the minds of most readers more directly if we cal at ention to
the fact that it just about equals the value of our total wheat crop
during a year of good yield. And it is a direct tax upon productive
industry everywhere, because, although here and there a nominal
loser, ful y insured, has only made what is sometimes cal ed "a good
sale" to the companies holding his risk, this is only a way of
apportioning the loss whereby the community at large become the
suf erers. Thus it is that we find al
ably-managed insurance
companies earnestly endeavoring to make it plain to the public how
fires should be guarded against, or most ef ectual y localized and
control ed when once started.
During the fal , or from "lighting up" time til about New Year's day,
more fires occur ordinarily than in any other portion of the year. This
fact points to some of the most general causes of conflagrations—as
in the lighting and heating of houses, factories, etc., where this had
not been necessary during the summer months. It is also found that
after the first of the year the number of fires is greatly diminished, the
lighting and heating ar angements having been subjected to a period
of trial during which their most obvious defects would be remedied.
While it may readily be conceded that the utmost care of the owner of
property could not total y prevent great average losses from fire—for
the greater the holdings the more must the proprietor trust to the
oversight of others—it is evident that the above facts indicate the
necessity of more strenuous precautions at this season. Gas pipes
and fit ings should then be tested; furnace flues and set ings looked
to; stove, heater, and grate fixtures and connections examined—and
in al these particulars the scrutiny should be most closely directed to
parts ordinarily covered up or out of sight, so that any defect or
weakness from long disuse may be exposed. When to the above
causes of fires we have added the extremely fruitful one found in the
extensive use of coal oil within a few years past, we have indicated
the most common sources of conflagrations of known origin. An
English authority gives the percentages of dif erent causes of 30,000
fires in London, from 1833 to 1865, as fol ows: Candles, 11.07;
curtains, 9.71; flues, 7.80; gas, 7.65; sparks, 4.47; stoves, 1.67;
children playing, 1.59; matches, 1.41; smoking tobacco, 1.40, other
known causes, 19.40; unknown causes, 32.88. The foregoing figures
do not give the percentage of incendiary fires,> and later statistics
would, no doubt, show vastly more fires from the use of kerosene
than are here at ributed to candles.
The prevention of fires, and the best means of minimizing the loss
when they do occur, are topics which cover a wide field, and a
col ection of the literature on the subject would make a very
respectable library. As the question presents itself to-day, it may wel
be doubted whether the general practice of large property holders of
insuring al their possessions does not tend to lessen the constant
vigilance which is the most essential requisite in preventing fires.
Thousands of merchants never mean to keep a dol ar's worth of
goods in store or warehouse that is not ful y covered by insurance,
and they make this cost a regular charge upon their business as
peremptorily as they do the wages paid the hands in their employ.
But few manufacturers can so completely cover their risks by
insurance, yet a large portion of them do so as far as they are able. It
does not fol ow but that the larger portion of both merchants and
manufacturers exercise what the law wil
ful y decide is "due
vigilance" in the care of the property so insured, but it is evident that
in most cases the thoughtfulness is much less complete—the care
wonderful y lacking in personal supervision—as compared with what
would be the case were each one his own insurer. Of course, this in
no way casts a doubt upon the general policy of business men being
amply insured, but in fact shows the greater necessity why they
should be so, that they may not suf er from the carelessness of a
neighbor; it also points to the necessity of continual y increasing care
and thoroughness of inspection on the part of the insurance
companies. These agencies, in fact, must compel the insured to keep
up to the mark in the introduction of every improvement to ward of
fires or diminish their destructiveness. The progress made in this
department during recent years has been great. The almost universal
use of steam has been at ended by the fit ing up of factories with force
pumps, hose, and al
the appliances of a modern fire brigade;
dangerous rooms are metal sheathed, and machinery likely to cause
fire is sur ounded by stationary pipes from which jets of water may be
turned on instantaneously from the outside; stores and warehouses
have standing pipes from which every floor may be flooded with
water under pressure, and the elevators, those most dangerous flues
for rapidly spreading a fire, are either bricked in entirely or supposed
to be closed at every floor. The lat er point, however, is sometimes
forgot en, as sea captains forget to keep the divisions of their vessels
having watertight compartments separate from one another; the open
elevator enlarges a smal fire as rapidly as the open compartment
al ows the vessel to sink.
With the best of appliances, however, discipline and dril on the part
of the hands, in al factories, is of prime importance. It is always in the
first stages of a fire that thoroughly ef icient action is necessary, and
here it is worth a thousand-fold more than can be any ef orts after a
fire is once thoroughly started. Long immunity is apt to beget a feeling
of security, and the carelessness resulting from overconfidence has
been the means of destroying many valuable factories which were
amply provided with every facility for their own preservation. The
teachers in some of the public schools of New York and Brooklyn,
during the past year, set an example which some of our mil owners
might profitably fol ow. There have been cases when, from a sudden
alarm of fire, children have been crushed in their crowding to get out
of the building. The teachers, in the instances refer ed to, marched
their children out, under discipline, as if there had been a fire. Let
owners of factories try some such plan as this, by which workmen
may be cal ed upon to> cope with an imaginary fire, and many of
them wil , we venture to say, find means of improving their present
system or appliances for protection, elaborate as they may at present
think them to be.
WHAT IS LIGHT?
If on opening a text book on geology one should find stated the view
concerning the creation and age of the earth that was held a hundred
years ago, and this view gravely put forward as a possible or
alternative hypothesis with the cur ent one deducible from the nebula
theory, one would be excused for smiling while he turned to the title
page to see who in the name of geology should write such stuf .
Nevertheless this is precisely similar to what one wil find in most
treatises on physics for schools and col eges if he turns to the subject
of light. For instance, I quote from a book edited by an eminent man of
science in England, the book bearing the date 1873.
"There are two theories of light; one the
emissive
theory; . . the other,
the
vibratory
theory;" just as if the emissive or corpuscular theory was
not mathematical y untenable sixty years ago, and experimental y
demonstrated to be false more than forty years ago. Unless one were
treating of the history of the science of optics there is no reason why
the lat er theory should be mentioned any more than the old theory of
the formation of the earth. It is not to be presumed that any one whose
opinion is worth the asking stil thinks it possible that the old view
may be the true one because the evidence is demonstrable against it,
yet while the undulatory theory prevails there are not a few persons
wel instructed otherwise who stil write and speak as though light
has some sort of independent existence as distinguished from so-
cal ed radiant heat; in other words, that the heat and light we receive
from the sun are specifical y dif erent.
A brief survey of our present knowledge of this form of energy wil
help to show how far wrong the common conception of light is. For
fifteen years it has been common to hear heat spoken of as a mode of
molecular motion, and sometimes it has been characterized as
vibratory
, and most persons have received the impression that the
vibratory motion was an actual change of position of the molecular in
space instead of a
change of form
. Make a ring of wire five or six
inches in diameter, and, holding it between the thumb and finger at
the twisted ends, pluck it with a finger of the other hand; the ring wil
vibrate, have three nodes, and wil give a good idea of the character
of the vibration that constitutes what we cal
heat. This vibratory
motion may have a greater or less amplitude, and the energy of the
vibration wil be as the square of that amplitude. But the vibrating
molecule gives up its energy of vibration to the sur ounding ether; that
is to say, it loses amplitude precisely as a vibrating tuning fork wil
lose it. The ether transmits the energy it has received in every
direction with the velocity of 186,000 miles per second, whether the
amplitude be great or smal , and whether the number of vibrations be
many or few. It is quite immaterial. The
form
of this energy which the
ether transmits is
undulatory
; that is to say, not unlike that of the wave
upon a loose rope when one end of it is shaken by the hand. As
every shake of the hand starts a wave in the rope, so wil
every
vibration of a part of the molecule start a wave in the ether. Now we
have several methods for measuring the wave lengths in ether, and
we also know the velocity of movement. Let
v
= velocity,
l
= wave
length, and
n
= number of vibrations per second, then
n
=
v/l
, and by
calculation the value of
n
varies within wide limits, say from 1 × 10
14
to 20 × 10
14
. But al vibrating bodies are capable of vibrating in
several periods, the longest period being cal ed the
fundamental
, and
the remainder, which stand in some simple ratios to the fundamental,
are cal ed
harmonics
. Each of these wil give to the ether its own
particular vibratory movement, so that a single molecule may be
constantly giving out rays of many wave lengths precisely as a
sounding bel gives out sounds of various pitches at one and the
same time.
Again, when these undulations in the ether fal upon other molecules
the lat er may reflect them away or they may absorb them, in which
case the absorbing molecules are themselves made to vibrate with
increased amplitude, and we say they have been heated. Some
molecules, such as carbon, appear to be capable of stopping
undulations of al wave lengths and to be heated by them; others are
only af ected by undulations of particular wave lengths, or of wave
lengths between special limits. In this case it is a species of
sympathetic
vibration.
The
distinction
between
the
molecular
vibrations, and the undulations in ether that result from them, must be
kept in mind, as must also the ef ect of the undulations that fal upon
other molecules. To one the name
heat
is applied, to the other the
name
of
radiant energy
is given; and it mat ers not whether the
undulations be long or short, the same molecule may give out both.
Now let a prism be placed in the path of such rays of dif erent wave
length from a single molecule, and what is cal ed the dispersive
action of the prism wil separate the rays in the order of their wave
lengths, the longer waves being less refracted than the shorter ones;
but the energy of any one of these wil depend upon the
amplitude of
undulation
, which in turn wil depend upon the amplitude of vibration
of the part of the molecule that originated it, but in general the longer
waves
have
greater
amplitude,
though
not
necessarily
so.
Consequently, if a thermopile be so placed as to receive these
various rays, and their energy be measured by its absorption on the
face of the pile, each one would be found to heat it, the longer waves
more than the shorter ones, simply because the amplitude is greater,
but for no other reason, for it is possible, and in certain cases is the
fact, that a short wave has as much or more energy than a longer one.
If the eye should take the place of the thermopile it would be found
that some of these rays did not af ect it at al , while some would
produce the sensation of light. This would be the case with any
waves having a wave length between the limits of, say, 1-37,000 of
an inch and 1-60,000 of an inch; any shorter waves wil not produce
the sensation of light. If instead of the eye a piece of paper washed in
a solution of the chloride of silver should be placed where the
dispersed rays should fal upon it, it would be found that only the
shorter waves would af ect it at al , and among these shorter ones
would be some of those rays which the eye could not perceive at al .
It was formerly infer ed from these facts that the heat rays, the light
rays, and the chemical rays were dif erent in quality; and some of the
late books treating upon this very subject represent a solar spectrum
as being made up of a heat spectrum, a light spectrum, and an actinic
or chemical spectrum, and the idea has often been made to do duty
as an analogy in trinitarian theology; nevertheless it is ut erly wrong
and misleading. There is no such thing as an actinic spectrum; that is,
there are no such rays as special chemical rays; any given ray wil do
chemical work if it fal s upon the proper kind of mat er. For instance,
while it is true that for such salts of silver as the chloride, the bromide,
etc., the shorter waves are most ef icient; by employing salts of iron
one may get photographic ef ects with wave lengths much too long
for any eye to perceive. Capt. Abney has photographed the whole
solar spectrum from one end to the other, which is suf icient evidence
that there are no special chemical rays. As to the eye itself, certain of
the wave lengths are competent to produce the sensation we cal
light, but the same ray wil heat the face of a thermopile or produce
photographic ef ects if permit ed to act upon the proper material, so
there is no more propriety in cal ing it a light ray than in cal ing it a
heat ray or an actinic ray. What the ray wil do depends solely upon
what kind of mat er it fal s upon, and al three of these names,
light
,
heat
, and
actinism
, are names of
ef ects of radiant energy
. The retina
of the eye is itself demonstrably a photographic plate having a
substance cal ed purpurine secreted by appropriate glands spread
over it in place of the silver salts of common photography. This
substance purpurine is rapidly decomposed by radiant energy of
certain wave lengths, becoming bleached, but the decomposition is
at ended by certain molecular movements; the ends of the optic
nerves, which are also spread over the retina, are shaken by the
disrupting molecules, and the disturbance is the origin of what we cal
the sensation of light. But the sensation is general y a compound one,
and when al wave lengths which are competent to af ect the retina
are present, the compound ef ect we cal white or whiteness. When
some of the rays are absent, as, for instance, the longer ones, the
optical ef ect is one we cal
green or greenness; and the special
physiological mechanism for producing the sensation may be either
three special sets of nerves, capable of sympathetic vibration to
waves of about 1-39,000, 1-45,000, and 1-55,000 of an inch in length,
as Helmholtz has suggested, or, as seems to the writer more
probable, the substance purpurine is a highly complex organic
substance made up of molecules of dif erent sizes and requiring
wave lengths of dif erent orders to decompose them, so that a part of
the substance may be quite disintegrated, while other molecules may
be quite entire throughout the visual space. This wil account for most
of the chromatic ef ects of vision, for complementary colors, and for
color blindness, by supposing that the purpurine is not normal y
constituted. This is in accordance with experimental photography, for
it has been found that the long waves wil act only upon heavier
molecules. It is true vision may be good when there is no purpurine,
but there is no doubt but that this substance is secreted in the eye,
and that it is photographic in its properties, and so far must be taken
as an element in any theory of vision; but the chief point here
considered is that objectively light does not exist independent of the
eye, that light is a physiological phenomenon, and to speak of it
otherwise is to confound a cause with an ef ect. It is, hence, incor ect
to speak of the velocity of light; it has no velocity. It is
radiant energy
that has the velocity of 186,000 miles a second. It is incor ect to say
we receive heat from the sun. What we do receive is radiant energy,
which is here transformed into heat. This is not hypercritical, but is in
accordance
with
the
knowledge
we
have
to-day.
The
old
nomenclature we use, but without definite meaning; the lat er is left to
be infer ed from the connection or context. If a man should at ach to
the water main in a city a properly constructed waterwheel, the lat er
wil rotate; but it would not be proper to say that he received rotation
from the reservoir. What he received was water with a certain
pressure; in other words, a certain form of energy, which he
transforms into rotation by the appropriate means; but by substituting
other means he can make the same water pressure maintain a
vibratory motion, as with the hydraulic ram valve, or let it waste itself
by open flow, in which case it becomes ultimately molecular vibration
that is heat. The analogy holds strictly. The trouble al comes from
neglecting to distinguish between dif erent forms of energy—energy
in mat er and energy in the ether.
GLASS SPINNING AND WEAVING.
Quite recently a Pit sburg glass firm has succeeded, to a notable
degree, in producing glass threads of suf icient fineness and elasticity
to permit of their being woven into fabrics of novel character and
quality. Their success is such as to war ant the assumption that
garments of pure glass, glistening and imperishable, are among the
possibilities of the near future. The spinning of glass threads of
extreme fineness is not a new process, but, as car ied on at present
by
the
firm in
question—Messrs. At erbury
&
Co.—possesses
considerable interest. From a quality of glass similar to that from
which table ware is made, rods of glass averaging half an inch in
diameter are drawn to any desired length and of various colors.
These rods are then so placed that the flame of two gas burners is
blown against that end of the rod pointed toward the large "spinning"
wheel. The lat er is 81/2 feet in diameter, and turns at the rate of 300
revolutions per minute. The flames, having played upon the end of
the glass cylinder until a melting heat is at ained, a thread of glass is
drawn from the rod and af ixed to the periphery of the wheel, whose
face is about 12 inches wide. Motion is then communicated, and the
crystal thread is drawn from between the gas jets and wrapped upon
the wheel at the rate of about 7,500 feet per minute. A higher speed
results in a finer filament of glass, and vice versa. During its passage
from the flame to the wheel, a distance of five or six feet, the thread
has become cooled, and yet its elasticity is preserved to a notable
degree. The next step in the process consists in the removal of the
layers of threads from the wheel. This is easily accomplished, and
after being cut to the desired lengths, the filaments are woven in a
loom somewhat similar to that used in weaving silken goods. Until
within the past few weeks only the woof of the fabric was of glass, but
at present both warp and woof are in crystal. Samples of this cloth
have been forwarded to New York and to Chicago, and the
manufacturers claim to be able to duplicate in colors, texture, etc., any
garments sent them. A tablecloth of glass recently completed shines
with a satiny, opalescent luster by day, and under gaslight shows
remarkable beauty. Imitation plumes, in opal, ruby, pale green, and
other
hues,
are
also
constructed
of
these
threads,
and
are
wonderful y pret y. The chief obstacle yet to surmount seems to lie in
the manipulation of these threads, which are so fine that a bunch
containing 250 is not so thick as an average sized knit ing needle,
and which do not possess the tractability of threads of silk or cot on.
[The foregoing information is furnished by a cor espondent
in Pit sburg. A sample of the goods mentioned, a tablecloth
of glass, is now on exhibition in this city.
The weaving of such heavy fabrics of glass for ornamental
purposes and for curiosities is no new thing; nor, in our
estimation, does comparative success in such experiments
war ant
the
enthusiastic
claims
of
the
Pit sburg
manufacturers
touching
the
adaptability
of
glass
for
wearing apparel. Unless it is in their power to change the
nature of glass absolutely and radical y, it does not seem
possible for them so to overcome the ultimate brit leness of
the separate fibers as to make the fabric fit to be brought in
contact with the skin. The woven stuf may be relatively
tough and flexible; but unless the entire fabric can be made
of one unbreakable fiber the touch of the free ends, be they
never so fine, must be anything but pleasant or beneficial,
if one can judge by the finest filaments of glass spun
hitherto. Besides, in weaving and wearing the goods, a
certain amount of fiber dust must be produced as in the
case of al
other textile material. When the softest of
vegetable fibers are employed the air charged with their
fragments is hurtful to the lungs; stil more injurious must be
the spiculæ of spun glass.
However, although the manufacturers are likely to be
disappointed in their expectation of finding in glass a
cheap and available substitute for linen, cot on, and silk in
dress goods, it is quite possible that a wide range of useful
application may be found for their new fabric.]
REMARKABLE ERUPTION OF MAUNA
LOA.
Late advices from the Sandwich Islands describe the eruption of
Mauna Loa, which began Nov. 5, as one of the grandest ever
witnessed. The opening was about six miles from the summit of the
mountain, and already two great streams of lava had been poured
out; one of them, from one to two yards wide and twenty feet deep,
had
reached
a
distance
of
thirty
miles.
Ter ible
explosions
accompany the flow of the lava stream, which for a time threatened
the town of Hilo; at last reports the flow seemed to be turning in
another direction.
Mauna Loa, "long or high mountain" occupies a large portion of the
central and southern part of the island of Hawai , and reaches an
elevation of 13,760 feet. It has been built up by lavas thrown out in a
highly fluid state, and flowing long distances before cooling; as a
consequence the slopes of the mountain are very gentle, averaging,
according to Prof. Dana, not more than six and a half degrees. Its
craters are numerous, and usual y occur near the summit and on the
sides, new ones opening frequently, and furnishing, as in the latest
instance, magnificent lava streams. The terminal crater is circular,
8,000 feet in diameter, and in 1864 was about 1,000 feet deep. In
1859 an enormous lava fountain spouted from this crater for four or
five days, throwing a column of white hot fluid lava about 200 feet in
diameter to the height of two or three hundred feet. The lava stream
ran 50 miles to the sea in eight days. Other great eruptions have
occur ed in 1832, 1840, 1843, 1852, 1855, 1868 and 1873. The lava
streams poured out in 1840, 1859, and 1868, flowed to the sea,
adding considerably to the area of the island. Those of 1843 and
1855 are estimated to have poured out respectively 17,000,000,000
and 38,000,000,000 cubic feet of lava. In 1868 the lava stream forced
its way under ground a distance of twenty miles, and burst forth from
a fissure two miles long, throwing up enormous columns of crimson
lava and red hot rock to the height of five or six hundred feet.
On the eastern part of Mauna Loa, 16 miles from the summit crater, is
Kilauea, the largest continuously active crater in the world. It is eight
miles in circumference, and 1,000 feet deep. Its eruptions are
general y independent of those of Mauna Loa.
NEW AIR ENGINE.
A valuable improvement in compressed air engines has recently
been patented in this country and in Europe by Col. F. E. B.
Beaumont, of the Royal Engineers, and we learn from accounts given
in the London and provincial papers that it has proved highly ef icient
and satisfactory.
The engine possesses some peculiar features which render it very
economical in the use of compressed air. It has two cylinders, one
being much larger than the other. Into the smal er of these cylinders
the compressed air is taken directly from the reservoir, and after doing
its work there it is discharged into the larger cylinder, where it is
further expanded, being final y discharged into the open air.
The admission of air to the smal er cylinder is regulated by an
adjustable cut-of apparatus, which admits of maintaining a uniform
power under a variable pressure. When the reservoir at first starting
contains air at a very high pressure, the cut-of is adjusted so that the
smal cylinder receives a very smal charge of air at each stroke;
when the pressure in the reservoir diminishes the cut-of is delayed
so that a larger quantity of air is admit ed to the smal cylinder; and
when the pressure in the reservoir is so far reduced that the pressure
on the smal er piston gives very lit le power, the supply passages are
kept open so that the air acts directly on the piston of the larger
cylinder. This ar angement is also available when the air pressure is
high and great power is required for a short time, as, for example, in
starting a locomotive.
It is, perhaps, needless to mention the advantages a motor of this
kind possesses over the steam locomotive. The absence of smoke
and noise renders it particularly desirable for tunnels, elevated roads,
and, in fact, for any city railroad.
Further information in regard to this important invention may be
obtained by addressing Mr. R. Ten Broeck, at the Windsor Hotel,
New York.
Telegraph Wires Underground.
Philadelphia newspapers report that the American Union Telegraph
Company are about to try in that city the experiment of put ing their
wires underground. The plan works wel enough in European cities,
and there would seem to be no reason why it should not succeed
here, save the indisposition of the companies to bear the first cost of
making the change. For some months the Western Union Telegraph
Company has had the mat er under consideration, but wil probably
wait until pressed by a rival company before it undertakes the more
serious task of taking down its forest of poles and sinking the wires
which contribute so much to the prevailing ugliness of our streets.
Sooner or later the poles and wires must come down; and it is
altogether probable that the change wil
be beneficial
to the
companies in the long run, owing to the smal er cost of maintaining a
subter anean system. It wil
certainly be an advantage to the
community.
IMPROVED SAFETY NUT.
That a safety nut so simple and so obviously ef icient as the one
shown in the annexed engraving should be among the recent
inventions in this line instead of being among the first, is a curious
example of the manner in which inventors often overlook the simplest
means of accomplishing an end. The principle on which this nut
operates wil be understood by reference to the engraving. Two nuts
are represented on each bolt, simply for the purpose of showing the
dif erence between the nut when loose and when screwed down. In
practice only one nut is required to each bolt.
The square nut shown in Fig. 1 is concaved on its under side, so that
it touches its bearings only at the corners and in the outer face of the
nut there are two slots at right angles to each other. When this nut is
screwed home the outer portion is contracted so as to clamp the bolt
tightly.
The hexagonal nut shown in Fig. 2 has but a single transverse slot,
and the nut is made concave on the under surface, so that when the
nut is screwed home it wil contract the outer portion and so clamp the
bolt.
This nut may be removed and replaced by means of the wrench, but it
wil not become accidental y loosened, and the bolt to which it is
applied wil
always remain tight, as the nut possesses a certain
amount of elasticity. The action of this nut is such as to prevent
stripping the threads of either bolt or nut.
As only one nut is used with each bolt, and as no washer or other
extra appliance is required, it is obvious that a great saving is ef ected
by this invention.
We are informed that several of the leading railroads have adopted
this nut, and use it on the tracks, engines, cars, and machinery. The
Atwood Safety Nut Company manufacture this article in a variety of
forms.
THE ATWOOD SAFETY NUT
Further information may be obtained by addressing J. W. Labaree,
Secretary
and
Treasurer,
Room
2,
Agawam
Bank
Building,
Springfield, Mass.
Petroleum Prospects.
The total oil production of the Pennsylvania oil regions for the month
of October was 2,094,608 bar els. The conditions in the producing
field are gradual y giving war ant for permanently higher prices of
crude. The confidence of the trade is daily becoming more fixed in the
definiteness and limit of the Bradford field, as the last of the several
"rich streaks" in the region are being worked.
We entertain an increased belief that the coming year wil exhibit a
continued fal ing of in the volume of production, notwithstanding al
the modern improvements in dril ing and the great energy with which
they are employed.
For the past few weeks the markets of both crude and refined seem to
have been rigorously and artificial y held by the refining interest. The
refined has been quoted at 12 cts. for four weeks without change—
and as a consequence the exporter has taken oil very sparingly. The
exports of last year to November 1, as compared with the exports of
this year to November 1, show a decrease of 1,269,646 bar els in
crude equivalent. The fal ing of of production, taken together with the
increased demand which must result from the present reluctance of
exporters, unite in war anting us in the belief above expressed, in
enhanced prices for the coming year.
Our figures show a decrease in production for last month, compared
with the preceding month, of 933 bar els per day, notwithstanding the
number of wel s dril ed was slightly greater than in the preceding
month. It wil be noticed, too, that the average per wel of the new
wel s for last month is a lit le less than that of the new wel s for the
month before, besides, it is general y recognized that the force of the
gas in the region is gradual y becoming less, and pumping is more
commonly resorted to. As nearly as we can ascertain, about one-
eighth of al the wheels of the Bradford region are now pumping. We
believe, however, on the whole, judging the character of the Bradford
producing field, that the fal ing of of production wil be quite gradual.
Our reason for this is that the Bradford field is essential y dif erent
from its predecessor—the Butler field. The wel s in the Butler field
were often close together, many of them were very large and fel of
rapidly; while the wel s of the Bradford region are smal er, farther
apart, much greater in number, have a greater area from which to
draw
oil,
and
consequently
decline
very
much
more
slowly.
—
Stowel 's Reporter
.
TOOL FOR DRIVING AND CLINCHING
NAILS.
A novel method of making a nail hole and driving and clinching the
nail is shown in the annexed engraving. The instrument for making
the hole has a notched end which leaves a ridge in the center of the
hole at the bot om. The nail driving tool consists of a socket provided
with a suitable handle, and containing a fol ower which rests upon
the head of the nail to be driven, and receives the blows of the
hammer in the operation of driving the nail. The nail is split for one
half its length, and the two arms thus formed are slightly separated at
the point, so that when they meet the ridge at the bot om of the hole
they wil be stil further separated and wil clinch in the body of the
wood.
TOOL FOR DRIVING AND CLINCHING NAILS.
This invention was recently patented by Mr. Charles P. Bal , of
Danvil e, Ky.
AUTOMATIC BALANCE ATTACHMENT
FOR VALVES.
It is wel
known that in al
air compressors and water pumps the
pressure in cylinder of air compressors or in working bar el or
cylinder of pumps is much greater at the point of opening the delivery
valves than the actual pressure in the air receivers of compressors or
in water column of pumps because of the dif erence in area between
the top and bot om of delivery valves. In some air compressors a
hundred and twenty-five pounds pressure to the square inch is
required in the cylinder to eighty pounds in the receiver, and in some
instances a hundred pounds pressure is required in the cylinder to
eighty pounds pressure in the receiver or column.
The engraving shows an invention designed to remedy this defect in
air compressors and pumps, to provide a device which wil enable
the compressors and pumps to operate with equal pressure on both
sides of the delivery valve.
The invention consists of an auxiliary valve ar anged outside of the
cylinder, where it is not subjected to back pressure, and connected
with the delivery valve by a hol ow valve stem.
In the engraving, which is a sectional view, the cylinder of an air
compressor is represented, on the end of which there is a ring
containing delivery ports, through which the air from the cylinder is
forced into a receiver or conducting pipe. This ring is provided with an
inner flange or valve seat on which rests the delivery valve. These
parts are similar to those seen in some of the air compressors in
common use, and with this construction and ar angement one
hundred pounds pressure to the square inch in the cylinder is
required to open the valve against eighty pounds pressure in the
receiver or in the conducting pipes.
AUTOMATIC BALANCE
ATTACHMENT FOR DELIVERY
VALVES OF AIR COMPRESSORS
AND WATER PUMPS.
A drum having an open end is connected with the cylinder head by
inclined standards, and contains a piston connected with the valve by
means of a rod that extends central y through the cylinder head. On
the outer end of this rod is screwed an adjusting nut, by means of
which the piston may be adjusted. This rod is bored longitudinal y,
establishing communication between the compressor cylinder and
the drum containing the piston.
It wil be seen that the upper face of the piston is exposed so as to be
subjected to atmospheric pressure only, and when the compressor is
in operation a portion of the air in the compressor cylinder passes
through the hol ow rod into the space beneath the piston, and there
exerts suf icient pressure, in combination with the pressure on the
inner face of the valve, to open the valve against an equal pressure in
the receiver or conducting pipes, so that when the pressure in the
cylinder equals the pressure in the receivers the valve is opened and
held in place until the piston in the cylinder starts on the return stroke,
when the pressure under the piston is immediately relieved through
the hol ow rod and the main valve closes.
The space between the valve and its seat is made as shal ow as
possible, so that the space may be quickly fil ed and exhausted. The
piston may be adjusted to regulate this space. This invention was
recently patented by Messrs. Samuel B. Connor and Henry Dods, of
Virginia City, Nevada.
IMPROVED SAFETY VALVE.
In the annexed cut we have represented a steam safety valve, which
is the invention of M. Schmidt, M. E., of Zurich, Switzerland. It
consists of a lever terminating in two prongs, one of which extends
downward and rests upon the cap, closing the top of the tube through
which the steam escapes. The other prong extends upward and
catches under a projection of the steam tube, and forms the fulcrum
for the lever. The opposite end of this lever is provided with an
adjustable screw pressing upon a plate that rests on the top of a
spiral spring, which keeps the valve closed by pressing the outer end
of the lever upward. As soon as the pressure of the steam overcomes
the pressure of the spiral spring the valve wil be raised, permit ing
the steam to escape. The apparatus is contained in a case having a
central aperture for the escape of steam.
IMPROVED SAFETY VALVE.
Raising Sunken Vessels.
An experiment recently took place in the East India Dock Basin,
Blackwal , London, by permission of Mr. J. L. du Plat Taylor, the
secretary of the Dock Company, for the purpose of testing and
il ustrating the mode of raising sunken ships by means of the
apparatus patented by Mr. Wil iam Atkinson, naval engineer, of
Shef ield. The machinery employed consists of the necessary
number and size, according to the power required, of oval or egg-
shaped buoys constructed of sheet iron, having an internal valve of a
simple and ef ective character. Captain Hales Dut on, the dock
master, who assisted during the operations, had placed his smal
yacht at the inventor's service for the occasion. The vessel was
moored in the basin, and a set of four buoys were at ached to it, one
on each side near the bow and the stern. Air was supplied from a
pump on the quay by a pipe communicating with a smal
copper
globe resting on the deck of the vessel, and from which place
proceeded
four other flexible
tubes, one
to
each
buoy, thus
distributing the air to each one equal y. The vessel being flooded and
in a sinking condition, the buoys were at ached and the valves
opened; they rapidly fil ed with water, and the vessel immediately
sank in about 30 feet. Upon the first at empt an air chamber in the
stern had been lost sight of, causing the vessel to come up to the
surface stern uppermost; this being rectified, the vessel was again
sent to the bot om, and al owed to remain a short time to al ow her to
set le down. When the order was given to work the pump, the vessel
was brought to the surface, perfectly level, in about three minutes.
The apparatus used, although only models, and on a comparatively
diminutive scale (the buoys measuring 3 feet 4 inches in height and 2
feet 6 inches in diameter), was estimated to be capable of lifting a
weight of nearly 20 tons, and that it needed, as represented by the
patentee, only a cor esponding increase in the lifting power to deal
successful y with vessels of any tonnage.
NEW HAND POWER BAND SAW.
The engraving shows a new hand power band saw made by Frank &
Co., of Buf alo, N. Y., and designed to be used in shops where there
is no power and where a larger machine would be useless. It is
calculated to meet the wants of a large class of mechanics, including
carpenters and builders, cabinet makers, and wagon makers. It is
capable of sawing stuf six inches thick, and has a clear space of
thirty inches between the saw and the frame. The upper wheel is
adjusted by a screw pressing against a rubber spring which
compensates for the expansion and contraction of the saw.
The machine has a very complete device for raising, lowering, and
adjusting the wheel, and al of the parts are made with a view to
obtaining the best results in the simplest and most desirable way.
The machine is six feet wide and five feet high, and weighs 380 lb.
The wheels are covered with pure rubber bands wel cemented.
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