Crop Germplasmics, livre ebook

Crop germplasmics is a scientific field dedicated to the study of diversity of crops and their wild relatives, as well as its utilization. It encompasses theories, technologies, and management systems involved in the formation, conservation, research, and utilization of crop diversity. This book introduces the theoretical and technical frameworks of crop germplasmics, providing a comprehensive overview of the discipline. The book begins with an Introduction that outlines the main themes, followed by a detailed exploration of fundamental theories. Subsequent chapters delve into specific theories, technical methods, and significant advancements within the workflow of germplasm. Topics covered include investigation and collection, safe conservation, phenotypic evaluation, genotyping and gene mining, germplasm enhancement, multi-omics research, big data construction, sharing and utilization, value assessment, property rights protection, and efficient management. The book emphasizes a seamless integration of academic rigor and accessibility, reflecting the cutting-edge and forward-looking nature of the discipline’s development. It serves as a valuable reference for professionals working with germplasm, as well as for postgraduate teaching, crop genetics and breeding, and basic research.

Editorial Board of Crop Germplasmics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V

CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Crop Germplasmics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Purposes, Importance and Development of Crop Germplasmics. . . . . 1

1.1.1 Purposes and Importance of Crop Germplasmics. . . . . . . . 1

1.1.2 Development of Crop Germplasmics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Concepts, Connotation and Roles of Crop Germplasmics. . . . . . . . 4

1.2.1 Basic Concepts and Connotation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2.2 Categories of Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2.3 Formation of Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2.4 Roles of Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.2.5 Improvement of the World’s Agricultural Development by Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . 11

1.3 Theories, Tasks and Research Directions of Crop Germplasmics. . . . 12

1.3.1 Basic Theories of Crop Germplasmics. . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.3.2 Basic Features of Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.3.3 Extended Features of Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.3.4 Research Directions of Crop Germplasmics . . . . . . . . . 16

1.3.5 Features of Research on Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . 19

1.4 History, Status and Trend of Research in Crop Germplasmics . . . . . 20

1.4.1 History of Crop Germplasmics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.4.2 Developmental Status and Trend of Crop Germplasmics . . . 26

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

CHAPTER 2

Basic Theories of Germplasmics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.1 Introduction to the Theory of the Centres of Origin of Crops . . . . 29

2.1.1 The Centres of Origin of Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.1.2 Methods for Determining the Centres of Origin of Crops . . . 33

2.1.3 Crop Domestication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2.1.4 Impacts of the Centres of Origin of Crops in Germplasm Research . . . .. . 43

2.2 The Law of Homologous Series in Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.2.1 Theoretical Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.2.2 Convergent and Divergent Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

2.2.3 Research Methods in Genetic Evolution . . . . . . . . . . 47

2.2.4 Crop Diffusion and Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.2.5 Impacts of the Law of Homologous Series in Variation on Crop Germplasm . . .. . . . . 51

2.3 The Theory of Synergistic Evolution of Crop Germplasm and Cultural Environments. . . . . . 53

2.3.1 The Preference for Waxy Food Promoted the Accumulation of Waxy Genes in Crops .. 54

2.3.2 Steaming-Based Cooking Methods Can Promote the Evolution of Crops to Match the Steamed Taste Quality . . . . . . . . 56

2.3.3 The Preference for Vegetables and Fruits and the Diversification of Preferences Promoted the Formation of Germplasm of Characteristic Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

2.3.4 The Best Use of the Materials Gives Rise to New Crop Germplasm . . .. 59

2.3.5 Impacts of the Theory of Syngergistic Evolution of Crop Germplasm and Cultural Environments on Germplasm Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

CHAPTER 3

Investigating and Collecting of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

3.1 A Brief History of Investigating and Collecting of Crop Germplasm. . .. . . 73

3.1.1 Brief History of Crop Germplasm Investigating

and Collecting Outside of China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

3.1.2 Brief History of Crop Germplasm Investigating and Collecting in China. . 74

3.1.3 Brief History of Introducing Foreign Crop Germplasm to China . . . 74

3.2 Theoretical Basis of Crop Germplasm Investigation and Collecting . .. . . . . 75

3.2.1 Unbalanced Distribution of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . 76

3.2.2 The Long-Term and Continuity of Germplasm Variation . . . .. . . 77

3.2.3 Regional Specificity of Germplasm Influenced by Human Activities . . . .. 78

3.3 Investigating and Collecting Techniques Applied to Crop Germplasm . . .. . 80

3.3.1 Selection of Priority Areas for Investigating and Collecting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

3.3.2 Investigating Techniques of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . 81

3.3.3 Collecting Methods of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . 83

3.3.4 Specimen Collecting Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

3.4 Introduction of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

3.4.1 The Importance of Germplasm Introduction . . . . . . . . 85

3.4.2 Principles of Germplasm Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . 86

3.4.3 Technologies of Germplasm Introduction . . . . . . . . . . 86

3.4.4 Precautions with Foreign Introduction of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

3.5 Quarantine of Introduced Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

3.5.1 Necessity of Quarantine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

3.5.2 Basis for Quarantine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

3.5.3 Transmission Pathway of Quarantine Pests . . . . . . . . . 91

3.5.4 Phytosanitary Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

3.5.5 Quarantine and Inspection Technologies . . . . . . . . . . 95

3.6 Trends in Crop Germplasm Investigating and Collecting . . . . . . . 98

3.6.1 Achievements and Trends in Germplasm Investigating and Collecting in China. . 98

3.6.2 Achievements and Trends in Introducing Germplasm . . . . . 103

3.6.3 Trends in Germplasm Investigation and Collecting . . . . . . 104

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

CHAPTER 4

Conservation of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4.1 Concepts of Germplasm Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4.1.1 Basic Concepts of Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4.1.2 Scope of Conservation Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4.2 Significance of Germplasm Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

4.2.1 Maintaining Genetic Diversity and Integrity of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

4.2.2 Broadening the Genetic Basis for Crop Breeding and Agricultural Technological Innovation . . . . . . . . . 109

4.2.3 Playing a Critical Role in Crop Breeding, Agricultural Production, and Rural Revitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

4.3 Basic Principles of Germplasm Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

4.3.1 Integrated Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

4.3.2 Prolonging the Longevity and Maintaining the Genetic Integrity of Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

4.3.3 Maintaining Genetic Evolutionary Potential of Germplasm . . 124

4.4 Ex Situ Conservation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

4.4.1 Seed Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

4.4.2 Plant Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

4.4.3 In Vitro and Cryo Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

4.4.4 DNA Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

4.5 In Situ Conservation Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

4.5.1 Physical Isolation Protection Technology . . . . . . . . . . 140

4.5.2 Mainstreaming Conservation Technology . . . . . . . . . . 144

4.5.3 On-Farm Conservation Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

4.5.4 In Situ Conservation Monitoring and Early Warning . . . . . 145

4.6 Research Progress and Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

4.6.1 Ex Situ Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

4.6.2 In Situ Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

CHAPTER 5

Phenotypic Evaluation (Phenotyping) of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . 163

5.1 Fundamental Principles and Methods for Phenotyping of Crop Germplasm .. . . . . . . 163

5.1.1 Phenotyping: A Key to Crop Germplasm and Cultivar Development .. 163

5.1.2 Fundamental Principles and Environmental Controls in Crop Germplasm Phenotyping . .. 165

5.1.3 Major Phenotyping Methods in Crop Germplasm . . . . . . 168

5.2 Phenotyping of Agronomic Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

5.2.1 Overview of Agronomic Trait Phenotyping . . . . . . . . . 170

5.2.2 Methods and Criteria for Phenotyping Agronomic Traits . . . 174

5.3 Phenotyping of Resistance to Biotic Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

5.3.1 Overview of Phenotyping Biotic Stress Resistance . . . . . . 176

5.3.2 Technical Methods and Criteria for Phenotyping Crop Resistance to Diseases and Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

5.3.3 Types and Mechanisms of Resistance to Biotic Stresses . . . . 187

5.4 Phenotyping of Resistance to Abiotic Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

5.4.1 Overview of Phenotyping Crop Resistance to Abiotic Stress . . 190

5.4.2 Major Methods and Indicators for Phenotyping Crop Stress Resistance. .. . . 191

5.4.3 Types and Mechanisms of Crop Resistance to Abiotic Stresses. . . 194

5.5 Phenotyping of Quality Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

5.5.1 Overview of Phenotyping Crop Quality Traits . . . . . . . 195

5.5.2 Major Evaluation Methods, Indicators and Standards . . . . . 200

5.6 Phenotyping of the Use Efficiency of Environmental Resources . . . . 204

5.6.1 Overview of Phenotyping Use Efficiency of Environmental Elements by Crop Germplasm . .. . 205

5.6.2 Major Phenotyping Methods, Indicators and Standards . . . . 208

5.7 Progress and Development Trend of Phenotypic Evaluation . . . . . 210

5.7.1 Advance of Phenotypic Evaluation of Crop Germplasm in China . . . 210

5.7.2 Advances in Phenotypic Evaluation of Crop Germplasm in the World. . 218

5.7.3 Prospect of Phenotypic Evaluation of Crop Germplasm . . . 221

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

CHAPTER 6

Genotyping and Gene Discovery in Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . 225

6.1 Concept and Methods of Genotyping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

6.1.1 Concept, Content, Significance of Genotyping . . . . . . . . 225

6.1.2 Major Technical Methods of Genotyping . . . . . . . . . . 226

6.2 Application of Genotyping in Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . 229

6.2.1 Genetic Diversity Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

6.2.2 Analysis of Selection in Domestication and Improvement . . . 232

6.2.3 Construction of Core Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

6.2.4 DNA Fingerprint Database for Famous Cultivars and Crucial Germplasm. .. . 237

6.3 Gene Discovery and Allele Mining in Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . 238

6.3.1 Gene Resource Discovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

6.3.2 Methods for Gene Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

6.3.3 Basic Strategies of Allele Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

6.4 Major Achievements in Gene Discovery and Allele Mining for Crop Improvement. .. 246

6.4.1 Gene Discovery and Allele Mining for Yield . . . . . . . . 247

6.4.2 Gene Discovery and Allele Mining for Biotic and Abiotic Stress Tolerance .. . . . . 247

6.4.3 Gene Discovery and Allele Mining for Nutrient Utilization Efficiency . . . .. . . 250

6.4.4 Gene Discovery and Allele Mining for Quality Traits. . . . . 251

6.4.5 Gene Discovery and Allele Mining for Adaptation . . . . . . 252

6.5 Genomics Highlights Crop Founder Genotypes in Breeding . . . . . 253

6.5.1 Founder Genotype in Breeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

6.5.2 Basic Ideas and Strategy in Founder Genotype Research . . . 254

6.5.3 Progress in Interpretation of Crop Founder Genotypes . . . . 254

6.6 Trends in Genotyping and Gene Discovery in Crop Germplasm . . . 256

6.6.1 High-Throughput and Accurate Genotyping of Crop Germplasm . 256

6.6.2 Intelligent Processing of Big Data for Gene Discovery and Allele Mining . .. . 257

6.6.3 Targeted Gene Discovery and Germplasm Enhancement . . . 258

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

CHAPTER 7

Crop Germplasm Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

7.1 Basic Theories and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

7.1.1 The Implication of the Crop Germplasm Enhancement. . . . 263

7.1.2 Crop Genepools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

7.1.3 The Basic Theories for Crop Germplasm Enhancement. . . . 264

7.1.4 The Basic Methods of Crop Germplasm Enhancement . . . . 266

7.2 Crop Germplasm Enhancement Using Landraces . . . . . . . . . . 268

7.2.1 The Characteristics and Potential Value of Landraces. . . . . 268

7.2.2 Germplasm Enhancement Strategies with Landraces . . . . . 269

7.2.3 Application of Landraces in Crop Germplasm Enhancement. . 270

7.3 Crop Germplasm Enhancement Using Wild Relatives . . . . . . . . 279

7.3.1 Characteristics and Use Value of Crop Wild Relatives . . . . 279

7.3.2 Strategies for Crop Germplasm Enhancement Using Wild Relatives. . . 280

7.3.3 Detection and Tracking of Genetic Components of Crop Wild Relatives .. . . 282

7.3.4 Using Wild Relatives for Crop Germplasm Enhancement . . . 284

7.4 Research Hotspots and Trends of Crop Germplasm Enhancement . . . 290

7.4.1 Achievements in Crop Germplasm Enhancement in China . . . 290

7.4.2 The Future Development of Crop Germplasm

Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

CHAPTER 8

Crop Germplasmomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

8.1 Crop Germplasm Genomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

8.1.1 Principles of Crop Germplasm Genomics (CGG). . . . . . . 305

8.1.2 Fields, Strategies and Technologies of Crop Germplasm Genomics (CGG) .. . . . . 307

8.1.3 Major Advances in Crop Germplasm Genomics (CGG) . . . . 310

8.1.4 Issues and Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

8.2 Crop Germplasm Epigenomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

8.2.1 Basic Principles of Crop Germplasm Epigenomics . . . . . . 316

8.2.2 Experimental Design, Detection and Analysis Methods for Crop Germplasm Epigenomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

8.2.3 Progress in Crop Germplasm Epigenomics . . . . . . . . . 320

8.2.4 Issues and Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

8.3 Crop Germplasm Transcriptomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

8.3.1 Principles of Crop Germplasm Transcriptomics . . . . . . . 325

8.3.2 Research Contents of Crop Germplasm Transcriptomics . . . 327

8.3.3 Research Design and Methodology of Crop Germplasm Transcriptomics . . .. . . . . 328

8.3.4 Progress in Crop Germplasm Transcriptomics . . . . . . . . 331

8.3.5 Problems and Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

8.4 Crop Germplasm Proteomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336

8.4.1 Principles of Crop Germplasm Proteomics . . . . . . . . . 337

8.4.2 Research Fields in Crop Germplasm Proteomics . . . . . . . 338

8.4.3 Experimental Design and Key Techniques in Crop Germplasm Proteomics .. . . 339

8.4.4 Major Advances in Crop Germplasm Proteomics. . . . . . . 342

8.4.5 Challenges and Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

8.5 Crop Germplasm Metabolomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

8.5.1 The Mechanisms Underlying Metabolic Variations in Crop Germplasm . .. . . . . . 345

8.5.2 Research Foci of Crop Germplasm Metabolomics . . . . . . 345

8.5.3 Experimental Designs, Strategies and Methods in Crop Germplasm Metabolomics .. .. . 346

8.5.4 Advances in Crop Germplasm Metabolomics . . . . . . . . 348

8.5.5 Problems and Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

8.6 Crop Germplasm Phenomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

8.6.1 Principles of Germplasm Phenomics . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

8.6.2 Phenotypic Research in Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . 356

8.6.3 Programs and Technologies for Crop Germplasm Phenomics Research .. . . . . . . 356

8.6.4 Major Progress in Crop Germplasm Phenomics . . . . . . . 360

8.6.5 Problems and Prospects of Crop Germplasm Phenomics Research. . . 364

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

CHAPTER 9

Big Data of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

9.1 Concepts and Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374

9.1.1 Overview of Crop Germplasmic Big Data. . . . . . . . . . 374

9.1.2 Framework of Crop Germplasmic Big Data System . . . . . 376

9.2 Standards and Specifications of Crop Germplasmic Data . . . . . . . 377

9.2.1 Overview of Big Data Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378

9.2.2 Classification and Coding Standards for Crop Germplasm . . . . . . .. . . . 378

9.2.3 Metadata Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

9.2.4 Terminology and Descriptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382

9.2.5 Data Standards for Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

9.2.6 Data Quality Control Standards for Crop Germplasm . . . . 389

9.3 Data Acquisition and Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

9.3.1 Data Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

9.3.2 Data Submission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

9.3.3 Data Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

9.3.4 Data Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

9.4 Data Analysis and Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

9.4.1 Classical Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

9.4.2 Spatial Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412

9.4.3 Big Data Mining in Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . 417

9.5 Big Data Platforms and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

9.5.1 Overall Architecture of the Big Data Platforms . . . . . . . 420

9.5.2 Big Data Management Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

9.5.3 Applications of Big Data Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424

9.5.4 Big Data Sharing Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

9.6 Conclusion and Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

9.6.1 Major Achievements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

9.6.2 Challenging Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

9.6.3 Future Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428

CHAPTER 10

Utilization of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431

10.1 Utilization of Crop Germplasm in Basic Science . . . . . . . . . . . 431

10.1.1 Contribution of Crop Germplasm to Genetics . . . . . . . . 431

10.1.2 Contribution of Crop Germplasm to Cytogenetics . . . . . . 432

10.1.3 Contribution of Crop Germplasm to Genomics . . . . . . . 433

10.1.4 The Contribution of Germplasm to the Synthesis of New Species . . 436

10.1.5 Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

10.2 Utilization of Crop Germplasm in Breeding and Production . . . . . 437

10.2.1 Utilization of Landraces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438

10.2.2 Utilization of Introduced Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . 442

10.2.3 Utilization of Wild Relatives of Crops . . . . . . . . . . . 450

10.3 Crop Germplasm Sharing and Utilization Platform . . . . . . . . . 455

10.3.1 Concept and Significance of Sharing and Utilization . . . . . 455

10.3.2 Principles and Methods of Crop Germplasm Sharing . . . . . 456

10.3.3 Feedback on Germplasm Sharing and Utilization . . . . . . 459

10.3.4 Construction and Operation of the Shared Service Platform . . 459

10.4 Prospects of Crop Germplasm Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

10.4.1 Strengthen Public Awareness and Improve the Germplasm Conservation and Utilization .. . . . 465

10.4.2 Accelerate the Efficient Use of Crop Germplasm by Providing Active Services .. . 465

10.4.3 Lead the Development of Seed Industry by Improving

Germplasm Enhancement Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

CHAPTER 11

Value Assessment and Property Rights Protection of Crop Germplasm . . . 471

11.1 Importance of Value Assessment and Protection of Property Rights . . 471

11.1.1 Value Assessment Provides Important Evidence for Decision-Making on Conservation and Use of Germplasm . . . 471

11.1.2 Protection of Property Rights is the Incentive Mechanism for Conserving and Innovative Use of Germplasm . . . . . . 472

11.1.3 Access and Benefit-Sharing Constitute the Effective Mechanism for Protecting Sovereign Rights and Interests of Conservationists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472

11.1.4 Value Assessment and Protection of Property Rights Will Strengthen the Roles of Ensuring Food Security by Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472

11.2 Value Assessment of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473

11.2.1 Basic Concepts and Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473

11.2.2 Categories of Value of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . 475

11.2.3 Methods of Valuating Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . 478

11.2.4 Analysis on Composition of Value of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481

11.2.5 Value Assessment Approach of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . 482

11.2.6 Asset Management of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . 485

11.3 Protection of Property Rights of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . 487

11.3.1 Basic Concepts and Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488

11.3.2 Affirmation of Fundamental Rights on Crop Germplasm . . . 491

11.3.3 Exploration of Property Rights on Crop Germplasm . . . . . 493

11.3.4 Protection of Intellectual Property Rights Over Crop Germplasm . . .. 496

11.4 Access and Benefit-Sharing Mechanisms of Crop Germplasm . . . . . 501

11.4.1 Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

11.4.2 International Access and Benefit-Sharing of Germplasm . . . . 502

11.4.3 Practices in Access and Benefit-Sharing of Crop Germplasm in China .. . . . . . 506

11.5 Trends and Outlooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508

11.5.1 Strengthening Research and Application of Germplasm Valuation . . .. . . . 508

11.5.2 Promotion of Property Right Protection for Germplasm . . . 509

11.5.3 Promotion of Establishment and Implementation of Access and Benefit-Sharing System. . . . . . . . . . . . 510

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

CHAPTER 12

Management of Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513

12.1 International Management of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . 513

12.1.1 International Management System of Crop Germplasm. . . . 514

12.1.2 International System for the Conservation and Utilization of Crop Germplasm…515

12.1.3 International Operation System for Crop Germplasm. . . . . 517

12.1.4 Cases of Crop Germplasm Management in Selected Countries . .. 518

12.2 Management of Crop Germplasm in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522

12.2.1 Management Systems of Crop Germplasm in China . . . . . 523

12.2.2 Conservation and Utilization Systems of Crop Germplasm in China. . . . 528

12.2.3 Operation System of Crop Germplasm in China . . . . . . . 530

12.2.4 Operational Safeguard Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

12.3 Trends in Crop Germplasm Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

12.3.1 Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534

12.3.2 Suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539