Electron and Spin Transport through Single Molecules with ...
7
pages
English
Documents
Le téléchargement nécessite un accès à la bibliothèque YouScribe Tout savoir sur nos offres
7
pages
English
Documents
Le téléchargement nécessite un accès à la bibliothèque YouScribe Tout savoir sur nos offres
Publié par
Langue
English
C4.10 Wulfhekel 1 Subproject C4.10 Electron and Spin Transport through Single Molecules with Scanning Tunneling Microscopy Principle Investigator: Wulf Wulfhekel CFN-Financed Scientists: Further Scientists: Annika Borg, Dr. Eric Bdeaurepaire, Dr. Martin Bowen, Prof. Dr. Ferdinand Evers, Dr. Alexej Bagrets, Prof. Dr. Mario Ruben, Dr. Frank Schramm Physikalisches Institut Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Institut für Nanotechnologie Karlruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) IPCMS Strasbourg, France
Voir
- magnetic ions
- islands on the cu
- noble metal cu by virtue of van der waals interaction
- kondo effect
- hybridization of the molecular states with the electrons of the substrate
- conductance
- molecular orbital
- molecule
- states
- molecules
Publié par
Langue
English
Key Papers, Models and Studies Related to Commodity Modelling
A Brief Summary of the Most Important Papers and Models
William Smith, March 2010 Verson 1.4 (checkwww.CommodityModels.comfor periodic updates)
Introduction I have compiled below, a list of some of the most important and influential papers and models, of interest to those studying commodities finance or involved in modelling commodities (oil, gas, electricity, metals and agricultural products). It is not exhaustive;it is intended as a guide to ‘where to get started’. References in each paper should be used as a guide to further study. Within each section, papers are listed chronologically, I thank my PhD supervisorHélyette Gemanfor this insight.
The below papers are not necessarily the easiest papers to read, they are just the most influential. For a list of easy-to-read papers that introduce various topics in commodities, see my article ‘RecommendedPapers’ atwww.CommodityModels.com/recommended-papers.
This summary is ©William Smith,www.CommodityModels.com, 2010
Key Finance Papers of Direct Relevance to Commodities Author & Date Title Key Concepts and Importance
Bachelier, 1900
Black & Scholes, 1973
Merton, 1975
Black, 1976
Vasicek, 1977
The Theory of Speculation(in French).
The Pricing of Options and Corporate Liabilities
Option pricing when underlying stock returns are discontinuous The pricing of commodity contracts
An equilibrium characterization of the term structure
Introduction ofarithmeticBrownian motion as a model of asset prices, and a demonstration of how this can be used to price options. Unfortunately, this paper was relatively unknown to the finance world until around 1965. It’s rediscovery ultimately led to the Black & Scholes model, described below. Pricing model using thegeometricBrownian motion and incorporating dynamic delta hedging. Closed form solutions for the price of ‘vanilla’ put and call options provided some assumptions are made.
Extends the Black & Scholes 1973 paper to include the possibility of ‘jumps’ in the price process of the underlying security, which he models using a ‘Poisson’ process.
Extends Black & Scholes 1973 paper to include options on futures, particularly important in the commodities world.
Early model for interest rates. Uses the mean reverting ‘Ornstein-Uhlenbeck’ process as a model for the short-term interest rate, later widely used in modelling any mean-reverting process. The weakness of this model is that it can generate negative interest rates.
This summary is ©William Smith,www.CommodityModels.com, 2010
Full Reference
Bachelier, L. The Theory of Speculation.Annales scientifiques de l'École Normale SupérieureSér. 3, no. 17: 21-86.
Black, Fischer, and Myron Scholes. 1973. The Pricing of Options and Corporate Liabilities. The Journal of Political Economy81, no. 3 (June): 637-654. Merton, Robert. 1975. Option pricing when underlying stock returns are discontinuous.
Black, Fischer. 1976. The pricing of commodity contracts.Journal of Financial Economics3, no. 1-2 (January): 167-179. Vasicek, Oldrich. 1977. An equilibrium characterization of the term structure.Journal of Financial Economics5, no. 2 (November): 177-188..
URL (only official listed, but try also Google Scholar)http://www.numda m.org/item?id=ASE NS_1900_3_17__21 _0
http://www.jstor.or g/stable/1831029
http://dspace.mit.e du/handle/1721.1/1 899.
http://dx.doi.org/10 .1016/0304-405X(76)90024-6
http://dx.doi.org/10 .1016/0304-405X(77)90016-2
Margrabe, 1978
Cox, In ersoll, Ross, 1985
Heston, 1993
The Value of an Option to Exchange One Asset for Another
A Theory of the Term Structure of Interest Rates
A closed-form solution for options with stochastic volatility with applications to bond and currency options
If we have two assets both following geometric Brownian motions (as in Black&Scholes), Margrabe derives a formula for the value of the option to convert one into the other (i.e. sell one, and receive the other). This is very relevant to commodities because (for example) a power station can be considered as an option (you don’t have to run it everyday) on the ability to convert gas (or oil, etc) into electricity. A risk of using the model is that it assumes g.b.m. for both assets, constant volatility, and crucially, constant correlation between the two asset returns. Most important feature is that it introduces a mean -reverting process that cannot go below 0, by introduction of a ‘square root’ term.
Classic model with a stochastic volatility. Stock prices follows a geometric Brownian motion, and variance follows a mean -reverting model of th e square-root (CIR) type.
This summary is ©William Smith,www.CommodityModels.com, 2010
Margrabe, William. 1978. The Value of an Option to Exchange One Asset for Another.The Journal of Finance33, no. 1 (March): 177-186.
Cox, John C., Jonathan E. Ingersoll, and Stephen A. Ross. 1985. A Theory of the Term Structure of Interest Rates. Econometrica 53, no. 2 (March): 385-407. Heston, S. L. 1993. A closed-form solution for options with stochastic volatility with applications to bond and currency options.Review of financial studies: 327–343.
http://www.jstor.or g/stable/2326358
http://www.jstor.or g/stable/1911242
http://www.jstor.or g/stable/2962057
Commodities Specific Papers Author & Date Title Key Concepts and Importance
Hoteling, 1931
Working, 1949
Hubbert, 1956
Samuelson, 1965
Brennan & Schwartz, 1985
The economics of exhaustible resources
The Theory of Price of Storage
Nuclear Energy and the Fossil Fuels
Proof that properly anticipated prices fluctuate randomly
Evaluating Natural Resource Investments
One of the key results in a fairly complex paper is that, net of extraction costs, the prices of an exhaustible commodity such as oil should rise at the risk-free rate ‘r’.
The first few pages simply describe what we now call a forward curve (a name not yet used at this time). Explains why shape of the forward curve is related to the cost of storing the commodity. Prediction of shape of growth curve of oil and gas production, both US and worldwide, and predictions for dates when production would peak.
The most widely cited result of this paper is that the volatility of distant futures of an asset (those with longer maturity) is lower than the volatility of nearby futures, which he describes as being ‘a well-known rule of thumb’. This has become known as the ‘Samuelson effect’.Don’t confuse with a differentpaper, which he also published in 1965, entitled ‘Proof that properly discountedpresent valuesof assetsvibraterandomly’.Probably the first paper to apply the theory of‘real options’ to commodities. They consider a mine, producing a resource whose price can be modelled as a geometric Brownian motion (g.b.m). They then determine the optimal behaviour: to run the mine (and at what rate to produce the output), or to close the mine ready to re-open later, or even to abandon it.
This summary is ©William Smith,www.CommodityModels.com, 2010
Full Reference
Hotelling, H. 1931. The economics of exhaustible resources.The Journal of Political Economy39: 137–175. Working, H. 1949. The theory of price of storage.The American Economic Review39: 1254–1262. Hubbert, M King. 1956. Nuclear Energy and the Fossil Fuels. Drilling and Production Practise, American Petroleum Institute(June). Samuelson, P.A. 1965. Proof that properly anticipated prices fluctuate randomly.Industrial Management Review6: 41-49.
Brennan, Michael J, and Eduardo S Schwartz. 1985. Evaluating Natural Resource Investments. Journal of Business58, no. 2: 135-57.
URL (only official listed, but try also Google Scholar)?
http://www.jstor.or g/stable/1816601
http://www.hubber tpeak.com/Hubbert /1956/1956.pdf
http://www.ifa.com /Media/Images/PDF %20files/Samuelson -Proof.pdf
http://www.jstor.or g/stable/2352967
Fama & French, 1987
Gibson & Schwartz, 1990
Deaton & Laroque, 1992
Litzenber er & Rabinowitz, 1995
Commodity futures prices: Some evidence on forecast power, premiums, and the theory of storage Stochastic convenience yield and the pricing of oil contingent claims
On the behaviour of commodity prices
Backwardation in oil futures markets: Theory and empirical evidence
Discussion and analysis of what causes the ‘convenience yield’ observed in commodity futures curves. They provide a test to determine whether it is caused by the ‘stockout’ theory or the ‘risk premium’ theory.
Classic early commodities pricing model. The spot pri ce is modelled as a geometric Brownian motion, and the convenience yield as a mean -reverting Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process.
They examine the effects of storage on commodity price s, using a yearly model. They show that empirical prices are auto -correlated (at a yearly level), and show positive skew, i.e. the up-tail is more extreme than the down -tail. Assuming i.i.d. yearly harvests does not give this result unless we add storage. When we add storage, we see that very low prices become less likely, since producers will store the product. Also, high prices are unlikely in times of poor harvest, because we can extract from storage. However, occasionally the storage is e mpty and we will observe price spikes. This model therefore helps to explain the empirical data. Show that ‘backwardation’ is the most common shape for the crude oil futures curve (the so called ‘normal backwardation’ hypothesis, nothing to do with the normal distribution). Classical theory says this must be because oil extraction costs are expected to fall. They propose an alternative reason : producers are able to defer their production, giving an embedded optionality and increasing the price of short -term contracts.
This summary is ©William Smith,www.CommodityModels.com, 2010
Fama, E. F., and K. R. French. 1987. Commodity futures prices: Some evidence on forecast power, premiums, and the theory of storage.Journal of Business60, no. 1 (January): 55-73. Gibson, R., and E. S. Schwartz. 1990. Stochastic convenience yield and the pricing of oil contingent claims.Journal of Finance45, no. 3: 959-976. Deaton, Angus, and Guy Laroque. 1992. On the Behaviour of Commodity Prices.The Review of Economic Studies59, no. 1 (January): 1-23.
Litzenberger, R. H, and N. Rabinowitz. 1995. Backwardation in oil futures markets: Theory and empirical evidence.Journal of Finance: 1517–1545.
http://www.jstor.or g/stable/2352947
http://www.jstor.or g/stable/2328801
http://www.jstor.or g/stable/2297923
http://www.jstor.or g/stable/2329325
Bessembinder & Lemmon, 2002
Borovkova & Geman, 2006
Equilibrium pricing and optimal hedging in electricity forward markets
Seasonal and stochastic effects in commodity forward curves
Looking specifically at electricity markets, they show that forward prices contain a component that is related to risk premium.
Provides a method of splitting the prices of seasonal commodities into seasonal and non -seasonal components, via their forward curves. In some markets, such as electricity, the ‘spot’ price is hard to observe and therefore model. This paper proposes a method of constructing an alternative state variable, a s a proxy for the spot price, using futures prices.
This summary is ©William Smith,www.CommodityModels.com, 2010
Bessembinder, H., and M. L Lemmon. 2002. Equilibrium pricing and optimal hedging in electricity forward markets. Journal of Finance57, no. 3: 1347–1382. Borovkova, Svetlana, and Hélyette Geman. 2006. Seasonal and stochastic effects in commodity forward curves. Review of Derivatives Research 9, no. 2: 167-186. doi:10.1007/s11147-007-9008-4.
http://www.jstor.or g/stable/2697781
http://dx.doi.org/10 .1007/s11147-007-9008-4
Essential Econometrics Techniques Author & Title Key Concepts and Importance Date
Granger, 1969
Dickey & Fuller, 1979
Investigating Causal Relations by Econometric Models and Cross-spectral Methods Distribution of the Estimators for Autoregressive Time Series With a Unit Root
Introduces the concept of ‘Granger-causality’, i.e. that a change in a time-series at timetmight cause a corresponding change in a different time-series at timet+1, and that we can test this using a standard regression technique.
Introduces the ‘Dickey-Fuller’test (later extended to the Augmented Dickey-Fuller or ADF test) to determine whether a time series is stationary (mean-reverting) or has a unit-root (non-mean-reverting).
This summary is ©William Smith,www.CommodityModels.com, 2010
Full Reference
Granger, C. W. J. 1969. Investigating Causal Relations by Econometric Models and Cross-spectral Methods.Econometrica37, no. 3 (August): 424-438. Dickey, David A., and Wayne A. Fuller. 1979. Distribution of the Estimators for Autoregressive Time Series With a Unit Root. Journal of the American Statistical Association74, no. 366 (June): 427-431.
URL (only official listed, but try also Google Scholar)http://www.jstor.or g/stable/1912791
http://www.jstor.or g/stable/2286348
