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LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS TECHNOLOGY Compiled by Dr. Kale Asaram K Assistant professor, Department of LPT, Veterinary College, Bidar. Email id: drkaleasaram@ gmail.com 1 Natural casings are prepared from____________________ a Mucosa b submucosa c muscular layer d serosa 2 Most commonly used barrier bag for vacuum packaging are ____________________ a polyethylene b poly vinylidene c polypropylene d polyester 3 Frankfuter is a typical example of ___________average protein content of carcass meal temperature for turkey fresh carcass horse fat muscle fiber fat content of chicken egg albumen multiceps multiceps egg meat chicken
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Online Submissions: http://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327office wjg@wjgnet.com doi:10.3748/wjg.v17.i48.5295
World J Gastroenterol 2011 December 28; 17(48): 5295-5304 ISSN 1007-9327 (print) ISSN 2219-2840 (online) © 2011 Baishideng. All rights reserved.
BRIEF ARTICLE
Human papillomavirus in upper digestive tract tumors from three countries
Andres Castillo, Chihaya Koriyama, Michiyo Higashi, Muhammad Anwar, Mulazim Hussain Bukhari, Edwin Carrascal, Lida Mancilla, Hiroshi Okumura, Masataka Matsumoto, Kazumasa Sugihara, Shoji Natsugoe, Yo-shito Eizuru, Suminori Akiba
Andres Castillo, Chihaya Koriyama, Muhammad Anwar, Suminori Akiba,Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544,Japan Michiyo Higashi,Department of Human Pathology, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Ka-goshima 890-8544, Japan Mulazim Hussain Bukhari,King Edward Medical University, Lahole 54000, Pakistan Edwin Carrascal,Department of Pathology, Universidad del Valle, Cali 760043, Colombia Lida Mancilla,Universidad Santiago de Cali, Cali 760035, Co-lombia Hiroshi Okumura, Masataka Matsumoto, Shoji Natsugoe, Department of Surgical Oncology and Digestive Surgery, Ka-goshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sci-ences, Kagoshima 890-8544,Japan Kazumasa Sugihara,Department of Maxillofacial Diagnostic and Surgical Science, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544,Japan Yoshito Eizuru,Division of Oncogenic and Persistent Viruses, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima 890-8544,Japan Author contributions:Castillo A, Koriyama C and Akiba S conceived the study, analyzed the data and participated in editing of the manuscript; Castillo A performed human papillomavirus analysis; Higashi M, Bukhari MH and Carrascal E conducted pathological analyses; Anwar M, Mancilla L, Okumura H, Mat-sumoto M, Sugihara K and Natsugoe S retrieved clinical infor-mation and obtained a collection of tissue specimens for analysis; Eizuru Y and Akiba S gave analytical support for all the analyses. Supported byGrants-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Priority Areas (17015037) of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan Correspondence to: Dr. Chihaya Koriyama,Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Kagoshima UniversityGraduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, 8-35-1 Sakuragao-ka, Kagoshima 890-8544,Japan. fiy@m.kufm.kagoshima-u.ac.jp Telephone:+81-99-2755298Fax:+81-99-2755299 Received:April 21, 2011Revised:July 11, 2011 Accepted:July 18, 2011 Published online:December 28, 2011
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Abstract AIM: To clarify human papillomavirus (HPV) involve-ment in carcinogenesis of the upper digestive tract of virological and pathological analyses.
METHODS:The present study examined the presence of HPV in squamous cell carcinomas of the oral cavity (n = 71), and esophagus (n= 166) collected from Japan, Pakistan and Colombia, with different HPV exposure risk and genetic backgrounds. The viral load and physi-cal status of HPV16 and HPV16-E6 variants were ex-INK4a amined. Comparison ofp53 andp16expression in HPV-positive and HPV-negative cases was also made.
RESULTS:HPV16 was found in 39 (55%) oral carcino-mas (OCs) and 24 (14%) esophageal carcinomas (ECs). This site-specific difference in HPV detection between OCs and ECs was statistically significant (P < 0.001). There was a significant difference in the geographical distribution of HPV16-E6 variants. Multiple infections of different HPV types were found in 13 ECs, but mul-tiple infections were not found in OCs. This difference was statistically significant (P = 0.001). The geomet-ric means (95% confidence interval) of HPV16 viral load in OCs and ECs were 0.06 (0.02-0.18) and 0.12 (0.05-0.27) copies per cell, respectively. The expression INK4a of p16 proteins was increased by the presence of HPV in ECs (53% and 33% in HPV-positive and -nega-tive ECs, respectively;P0.036), and the high-risk = type of the HPV genome was not detected in surround-ing normal esophageal mucosa of HPV-positive ECs.
CONCLUSION:Based on our results, we cannot deny the possibility of HPV16 involvement in the carcinogen-esis of the esophagus.
© 2011 Baishideng. All rights reserved.
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Castillo Aet al. HPV in gastrointestinal tumors
Key words:Human papillomavirus; Viral load; Physical sta-INK4a tus; E6; p53; p16
Peer reviewers:Tamara M Alempijevic, MD, PhD, Assistant Professor, Clinic for Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Clinical Centre of Serbia, 2 Dr Koste Todorovica St., 11000 Belgrade, Ser-bia; Liang-Shun Wang, MD, Professor, Vice-superintendent, Sh-uang-Ho Hospital, Taipei Medical University, No. 291, Jhongjheng Rd., Jhonghe City, New Taipei City 237, Taiwan, China
Castillo A, Koriyama C, Higashi M, Anwar M, Bukhari MH, Carrascal E, Mancilla L, Okumura H, Matsumoto M, Sugihara K, Natsugoe S, Eizuru Y, Akiba S. Human papillomavirus in upper digestive tract tumors from three countries.World J Gastroenterol2011; 17(48): 5295-5304 Available from: URL: http://www.wjg-net.com/1007-9327/full/v17/i48/5295.htm DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.3748/wjg.v17.i48.5295
INTRODUCTION
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) belong to thePapilloma-viridaeand are non-enveloped icosahedral viruses family [1] with a diameter of 55 nm and have more than 100 types . The International Agency for Research on Cancer consid-ers that there is convincing evidence indicating that infec-tion withHPV16,18,31,33,35,39,45,51,52,56,58,59 [2] or 66can lead to cervical cancer . To date, approximately 20 types have been identified as high-risk HPVs that in-crease the risk of cervical cancer. Among them, HPV16 and HPV18 are considered to be associated with 70% of [2] all cervical cancer cases. In contrast, low-risk HPV types such asHPV6 andHPV11genital warts but not cause cancer. The association of HPV with cancers of the upper di-gestive tract (UDT) is also suspected. Majormalignancies observed in the UDT include cancers of the oral cavity, oropharynx, larynx and esophagus. Meta-analysis of 4680 samples from 94 reports published between 1982 and 1997 has shown that HPV was 2-3 times more likely to be detected in precancerous oral mucosa and approximately five times more likely to be detected in oral carcinoma [3] (OC) than in normal mucosa . Among the studies used in this meta-analysis, the largest and best-designed study [4] was that by Madenet al. They examined 112 normal mu-cosal specimens and 118 OCs and detected HPV16 in six (5%) cases of OC but in only one (0.9%) normal mucosal specimen. In contrast,HPV6was detected in 12 OCs and 10 normal mucosal specimens. High-risk HPV has also been detected in esophageal carcinomas (ECs). A review of studies published between 1982 and 2001 has shown that 15.2% of the 2020 squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) of the esophagus tested using polymerase chain reaction [5] (PCR) wereHPV positive . However, previous studies have shown variousHPV-positive rates in non-genital cancers worldwide. One argument is that this difference was caused by different HPV-detection methods with dif-ferent sensitivity and specificity among studies. Another possible explanation is different HPV exposure risk and/
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or susceptibility of disease/infection across study popula-tions. Furthermore, the role ofHPVUDT carcinomas, in [6] particularly ECs, remains unclear and controversial . Two European prospective serological studies that used stored [7,8] [9] serum specimens and a Chinese case-control study have found a strong association between the risk of ECs and seropositivity forHPV16. In contrast, two retrospec-[10,11] tive studies conducted in Europe and a large prospec-[12] tive serological study in Chinahave found no significant association ofHPV16orHPV18with ECs. In the present study, cases of oral cavity and esopha-geal cancer were examined for concomitant HPV infec-tion, the type of HPV involved, and multiple infection with different types ofHPV in Japan, Pakistan and Co-lombia, with differentHPVrisks and genetic exposure backgrounds, using the same methods. In order to shed light on the etiological significance ofHPVin the devel-opment of OCs and ECs, the viral load and physical sta-tus ofHPV16(which is the most commonly found HPV type worldwide) and HPV16-E6 variants were examined. INK4a Comparison ofp53 andp16 expression in HPV-positive and HPV-negative OCs and ECs was also made.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Ethics Institutional Review Board of the Faculty of Medicine, Kagoshima University, Japan, approved the present study.
Subjects This study examined 261 formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded tissues of SCC of the UDT: 92 cases (17 OCs and 75 ECs) diagnosed at Kagoshima University Hospital, Kagoshima, Japan during 1987-2005; 90 cases (48 OCs and 42 ECs) diagnosed at King Edward Medical Univer-sity, Lahore, Pakistan during the period 1996-2002; and 55 cases (6 OCs and 49 ECs) diagnosed at Hospital Universi-tario del Valle in Cali, Colombia during 1996-2001. For 11 HPV-positive EC cases from Japan, additional formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded tissues of the esophagus, with or without cancer cells, were analyzed. The histo-logical classifications for OCs and ECs were made using the guidelines determined by Japan Society for Head and [13] Neck Cancerand Japanese Society for Esophageal Dis-[14] eases, respectively. These Japanese classifications follow their corresponding WHO classifications.
DNA extraction Five-micrometer-thick sections of each tissue, contain-ing a minimum of 60% (typically 70%-90%) tumors cells, were prepared. In each tissue sample, 0.8 mL lemosol and 0.2 mL ethanol were added. Subsequently, the samples were washed with 1 mL ethanol. After centrifugation, the pellet was resuspended in digestion buffer (50 mmol/L Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 1 mmol/L EDTA, pH 8.0, 0.5% Tween 20) containing 200µg Proteinase K (Invitrogen, Carls-bad CA, United States) and incubated at 56℃ for 24 h.
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A
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
HPV16 E6
Y = -2.8042 x + 40.848 2 R = 0.991
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 Starting quantity (ng,log)
B
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Castillo Aet al. HPV in gastrointestinal tumors
β-globin
Y = -2.7423 x + 37.99 2 R = 0.9994
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 Starting quantity (ng,log)
Figure 1 Real-time polymerase chain reaction standard curves.A: Human papillomavirus (HPV)-16 E6 DNA standard calibration curve was generated automati-cally by plotting Ct values against the logarithm of the copy numbers of eightfold serially diluted of HPV-16 cloned in pUC19 plasmid; B: A seven fold dilution series of a human DNA control (Dynal UK) was used to generate the standard curve forβ-globin.
After incubation, the solution was heated at 100℃ for 10 min and centrifuged. Phenol-chloroform and DNA ethanol precipitation was made in all HPV16-positive samples in order to determine the DNA amount by using an ND-1000 spectrophotometer (Nano Drop Products, Wilmington, DE, United States). Since the quantity of tissue embedded in the paraffin blocks varied between samples,β-globinamplification was made for all gene the samples to check the presence of PCR amplification inhibitors and of amplifiable DNAs. Theβ-globin gene [15] amplification with a set of PCO3/PCO4 primers was conducted under the following PCR conditions: initial denaturation at 95℃for 4 min, 40 cycles with the cycling profile of 95℃for 1 min, 52℃for 1 min and 72℃for 2 min, and final extension for 5 min at 72℃.
HPV detection and genotyping The prevalence ofHPVwas analyzed with the DNA broad-spectrum SPF1/2HPV primers PCR method as [16] described previously . The reaction was performed in a final volume of 25µL containing 3µL DNA template and 1.5 U AmpliTaq gold (PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, United States). The mixture was incubated for 15 min at 95℃1 min at 94, followed by 40 cycles of ℃, 1 min at 45℃, and 1 min at 72℃, and a final extension of 5 min at 72℃. The PCR products were run on a 3% agarose geland the 65-bp product was visualized with ethidium bromide staining. TheHPVtypes were determined using the INNO-LiPAHPVgenotyping v2, which is based on the reverse hybridization principle. Part of theL1 gene region of theHPVwas amplified using SPF10 genome forward and reverse primers tagged with a biotin at the [17] 5’ end, and denatured . Biotinylated amplicons were hy-bridized with specific oligonucleotide probes immobilized on the strip. In total, there were 25 genotypes (HPV6, 11, 16, 18, 31 33, 35, 39, 40, 42-45, 51-54, 56, 58, 59, 66, 68, 70, 73 and 74). After hybridization and stringent washing, streptavidin-conjugated alkaline phosphatase was added and bound to any biotinylated hybrid previously formed. Incubation with 5-bromo-4-choro-3-indolyl phosphate/ nitro blue tetrazolium chromogen gave a purple/brown precipitate and results could be interpreted visually.
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HPV16 viral load The quantitative real-time PCR analysis was performed with an ABI Prism 7000 Sequence Detection System (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, United States). Each HPV16 DNA positive sample was amplified for 76 bp of theE2using the following primers: gene forward 5’-AACGAAGTATCCTCTCCTGAAAT-TATTAG-3’ (3361-3389 nt); reverse 5’-CCAAGGC-GACGGCTTTG-3’ (3427-3443 nt), as well as 81 bp of theE6 gene, primers forward 5’-GAGAACTGCAAT-GTTTCAGGACC-3’ (94-116 nt); reverse 5’-TGTATA-AGTTGTTTGCAGCTCTGTGC-3’ (150-169 nt), in the presence of specific hybridization probes forE2-(FAM-CACCCCGCCGCGACCCATA-TAMRA) (3406-3424 nt) andE6-(FAM-CAGGAGCGACCCAGAAAGTTAC-CACAGTT-TAMRA) (119-147 nt). The reaction was performed in a 25µL mixture containing 1 × TaqMan Master Mix (Applied Biosystems), 300 nmol primers, 100 nM dual-labeledE2 orE6hybridization fluorogenic probe, and 1-2µL DNA template. Incubation for 10 min at 95℃the AmpliTaq Gold DNAallowed activation of polymerase and denaturation of nucleic acids; 40 cycles of denaturation at 95℃for 15 s and annealing-extension at 60℃1 min were then carried out to amplify the for E2 andE6full-length HPV16Serial dilutions of genes. genome cloned inpUC19(kindly given by Dr. plasmid Massimo Tommasino, IARC, France) containing equiva-lent amounts ofE2andE6genes from 86 to 862 million copies per reaction served as a standard control (Figure 1A). Each sample was assayed two or three times. DNAs extracted from SiHa cell SiHa cells was used as control forE2(negative) andE6(positive) amplification. This cell line derived from a cervical carcinoma is known to harbor [18] one HPV16 genome or two per cell. Since this cell has only an integrated viral genome, itsE2gene is disrupted. To adjust for the differences in the amount of input ge-nomic DNA between samples, quantitative real-time PCR for humanβ-globingene was performed by 2× QuantiTect SYBR Green PCR kit (QIAGEN, Hilden, Germany) us-[15] ing the PC03/PC04 primers set. A sevenfold dilution series of a human DNA control (Dynal UK, Brombor-ough, Wirral, United Kingdom) was used to generate the
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Castillo Aet al. HPV in gastrointestinal tumors
standard curve (Figure 1B). The amount ofβ-globinDNA present in each sample was divided by the weight of one genome equivalent (i.e.6.6 pg/cell) and a factor of two (because there are two copies ofβ-globin DNA/genome equivalent or cell) to obtain the number of genome equivalents or cells in the sample. The viral load of each sample was expressed as the number ofHPV16 copies per cell.
HPV16 physical status The HPV16 physical status was determined on the as-sumption that theE2gene is disrupted in integrated viral genome, and therefore, the expected ratio ofE2 toE6copy numbers was zero. On the other hand, episomal viral genome had equivalent copy numbers of theE2andE6genes (anE2/E6ratio was nearly equal to unity) and mixed presence of integrated and episomal forms of [19] HPV16had anE2/E6ratio between 0 and 1 .
HPV16 E6 sequencing and variant analysis HPV16E6gene was divided into two fragments and am-plifiedby two semi-nested PCRs, using outer primers 5’ -TTGAACCGAAACCGGTTAGT-3’(forward, 46-66 nt) and 5’-GCATAAATCCCGAAAAGCAA-3’(reverse,236-256nt), and inner primers5’-GCACCAAAAGAGA-ACTGCAA-3’(forward, 85-105 nt) for the first half. The outer primers of the second half were 5’-GGGATT-TATGCATAGTATATAGAGA-3’(forward, 246-270 nt) and 5’-CTTTGCTTTTTGTCCAGATGTC-3’ (reverse, 453-474 nt), and inner primers 5’-CAGGACACAGTG-GCTTTTGA-3’ (reverse, 421-440 nt). The primers were [20] designed using the web-based tool Primer3 . Each reac-tion mix forE6 amplification contained 5µL template DNA, 200µmol/L dNTP, 0.5µmol/L each primer, and 1 U Hot star Taq DNA polymerase (QIAGEN) in a total volume of 25µL reaction buffer (50 mmol/L KCl, 20 mmol/L Tris-HCl, pH 8.3). The first-round PCR condi-tion was 95℃95for 15 min, followed by 40 cycles of ℃for 1 min, 55℃1 min, and 74 for ℃1 min, and a for final cycle of 74℃ for 10 min. The second-round PCR condition was essentially the same as the first round, ex-cept that 1µthe first-round PCR products was usedL of as template and that the number of PCR cycles was 35. The amplified products were confirmed through electro-phoresis with 2% agarose gels at 100 V for 25 min. The positive amplicon was purified using the QIAGEN PCR purification kit and directly sequenced by fluorescent dye-labeled dideoxynucleotides and cycle sequencing methods using the Big Dye Terminator Cycle Sequencing Kit (PE Applied Biosystems, NJ, United States). The HPV16 E6 sequences were aligned by CLUSTAL W multiple [21] alignments package, and compared with sequences of HPV16 variants that have been published elsewhere. HPV16 variants Genbank accession numbers were as follows:K02718, E-350T prototype;AF536179,E-350Gvariant;AF402678, Asian-American variant;AF534061, Asian variant andAF536180, African variant 1.
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INK4a Immunohistochemistry for p16 and p53 The paraffin-embedded samples were cut in 2-3-µm-thick slices, deposited on coated glass slides, and dewaxed using xylene. After rinsing with ethanol, the slides were incubated for 30 min in 0.3% H2O2/methanol and for 5 min in a microwave oven at 95℃in 0.01 mol sodium phosphate/citrate buffer (pH 8.0). In order to block the nonspecific binding of the antibody, the slides were incu-bated for 30 min with 5% bovine serum albumin (BSA) in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) at room temperature. A 1:200 dilution in 5% BSA-PBS of monoclonal anti-INK4a p16was used (BD PharMingen, San Jose, antibody CA, United States). The slides were incubated overnight at 4℃, washed with PBS, incubated with biotinylated horse anti-mouse IgG for 30 min, and then washed with PBS and incubated with 1:50 dilution of the avidin-bio-tin-peroxidase complex (Vectastain Elite ABC kit; Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA, United States) for 30 min at room temperature. The reaction was visualized by add-ing diaminobenzidine (Dako, Carpinteria, CA, United States) for 10 min. The sections were counterstained with hematoxylin and visualized. Immunostaining was consid-ered negative when 0%-9% of the carcinoma cells were stained, and was considered positive when 10%-100% of the cells were stained, according to criteria reported [22] previously . For p53, the procedure was the same as for INK4a p16p53 (1:50 dilution), but primary antibodies of was used (DO-7; Dako Japan, Kyoto, Japan). The inter-pretation of the positive signal was the same as that used INK4a forp16immunostaining.
Statistical analysis 2 Theχ test, Fisher’s exact test, Kruskal-Wallis test, and calculations of geometric mean of viral load and corre-sponding 95% confidence intervals were calculated with STATA software, version 9.2. (STATA Corp., College Station, TX, United States). All thePvalues presented were two sided.
RESULTS The present study examined cases of SCC of the oral cavity (n= 71) and esophagus (n= 166) collected from Japan, Pakistan and Colombia. Sex distribution and mean ages by country are shown in Table 1. Although there was no sex difference in OCs among the countries, the proportion of male Japanese EC cases was higher than those of other countries. Pakistani OC and EC cases were younger than those in other countries. The results of HPV detection using PCR with SPF1/2 consensus HPV primers are shown in Table 2. Although Colombian and Pakistani cases showed relatively higher HPV-positive rates in OCs and ECs, respectively, these differences were not statistically significant even after adjusting for sex and age distributions. In total, HPV was detected in 56% and 19% of SCCs of the oral cavity and the esophagus, respectively. The prevalence of HPV in
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Table 1 Sex and age distribution of oral carcinoma and esophageal cancer cases
Male/total (%) Japan Pakistan Colombia 1 Pvalue Mean age in yr (95% confidence interval ) Japan Pakistan Colombia 2 Pvalue
Cancer site Oral Esophagus
11/17 (65) 30/48 (63) 4/6 (67) 0.972
68 (64, 73) 49 (45, 53) 67 (61, 73) 0.013
66/75 (88) 25/42 (59) 27/49 (55) < 0.001
64 (62, 65) 54 (50, 57) 64 (60, 67) < 0.001
1 2 2 P values were obtained byχ test.Pwere obtained by one-way values analysis of variance.
Table 2 Frequency of human papillomavirus DNA in tumors by cancer site and countryn(%)
Cancer site country Total Oral cavity 71 Japan 17 Pakistan 48 Colombia 6 1 Pvalue Esophageal 166 Japan 75 Pakistan 42 Colombia 49 1 Pvalue
HPV-positive 40 (56) 8 (47) 27 (56) 5 (83) 0.305 31 (19) 11 (15) 11 (26) 9 (18) 0.308
HPV16-positive 39 (55) 7 (41) 27 (56) 5 (83) 0.193 24 (14) 9 (12) 9 (21) 6 (12) 0.331
Multiple HPV
0 0 0 0 -13 (8) 5 (7) 5 (12) 3 (6) 0.521
1 2 Comparison among the three countries byχHPV: Human papillo- test. mavirus.
carcinomas was significantly higher in OCs than in ECs (P< 0.001), and similar trends were observed in all coun-tries. HPV16 was by far the most frequently detected HPV type. Except for one case, all HPV-positive SCC cases of the oral cavity harbored HPV16 only (39/40); the exception was an OC case in which HPV6 was detected. There were no multiple infections of different HPV types in a single carcinoma specimen among OCs (Table 2). Among 31 HPV-positive ECs, 24 were HPV16-positive. Table 3 lists 19 EC cases with HPV of a type other than HPV16; of these, 13 involved multiple infections of dif-ferent HPV types. All multiple-infection cases except one involved combinations of HPV16 and other HPV geno-types (12/13). The exceptional case involved multiple infection with HPV51 and HPV68. The physical status of HPV16 was determined by the ratio between copy numbers of the viralE2andE6genes, which were measured by real-time PCR. Among the 63 HPV16-positive cases examined, only four had HPV16 in the episomal form (two OCs and two ECs), as shown in Table 4. In eight carcinomas (three OCs and five ECs), the HPV16 genome was present in both the episomal and integrated forms. In the remaining cases, the viral
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Castillo Aet al. HPV in gastrointestinal tumors
Table 3 List of esophageal carcinomas with human papilloma-virus genome other than human papillomavirus 16
Country Japan
Pakistan
Colombia
Sex Male Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Male
HPV: Human papillomavirus.
Age (yr) 49 66 64 67 75 65 39 43 48 34 54 55 58 59 65 68 74 72 67
HPV16 --+ + + + --+ + + + + ---+ + +
OtherHPVtype 6 51/68 18 51 51 51 18 45 6 6 35 45 45 18 18 18 6 18 18
Table 4 Physical status and E6 variants of human papilloma-virus16 in Japan, Pakistan and Colombia
n(%) 1 All Japan Pakistan ColombiaPvalue Oral cavity 39 7 27 5 Physical status Episomal 2 0 2 (7) 0 0.147 Mixed 3 0 1 (4) 2 (40) Integrated 34 7 (100) 24 (89) 3 (60) HPV16 E6 variant Prototype 6 3 (75) 3 (21) 0 0.048 E-350G(64) 3 (25) 9 (60)13 1 Asian 2 0 2 (14) 0 Asian- 2 0 0 2 (40) American Esophagus 24 9 9 6 Physical status Episomal 2 0 0 2 (33) 0.017 Mixed 5 0 4 (44) 1 (17) Integrated 17 9 (100) 5 (56) 3 (50) HPV16 E6 variant Prototype 2 2 (40)0 0 < 0.001 E-350G8 3 (60) 5 (100) 0 Asian 0 00 0 Asian- 6 0(100)0 6 American
1 Pvalues were obtained by Fisher’s exact test. HPV: Human papillomavirus.
genome was considered to be present in the integrated form only. The frequency of HPV16 genome integration into the host genome was not related to sex, age or cancer site. However, the distribution of HPV16 physical status in ECs significantly differed among the three countries. All Japanese HPV16-positive cases showed an integrated form, but the frequency of integrated HPV16 was low in Pakistani and Colombian ECs. HPV16 E6 variant analysis was also conducted (Table 4). The specimens in some cases had insufficient DNA, therefore, only 39 HPV16-positive cases were analyzed.
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0.368
11 (35) 20 (65)
0.773
1 HPV- HPV-Pnegative positive value
0.899
0.291
39 7 27 5 2 37 13 10 24 9 9 6 2 22 8 8
GM 0.064 0.047 0.037 1.883 0.001 0.081 1.081 0.127 0.121 0.072 0.124 0.251 0.161 0.118 0.444 0.215
0.036
cases collected from Japan, Pakistan and Colombia. The HPV prevalence in both OCs and ECs did not signifi-cantly differ by country (Table 2). On the other hand, there was a significant geographical difference in the dis-tribution of HPV16 E6 variants, which was also related to the viral load (Table 5). HPV16-positive OC cases with the E-350G variant showed a higher viral load than those with non-E-350G variants. Similar trends were observed in ECs although the difference was not statisti-cally significant. One of the reasons for this difference is nucleotide alterations in primers and probes sequences. Among HPV16 intratypes, there is one polymorphism in the sequence of the E6 probe at nucleotide 145, and the Asian-American variant harbors this nucleotide substitu-tion (C to T). However, this polymorphism is unlikely to cause a difference in viral load because the copy number of HPV16 in the Asian-American variant was similar to other intratypes except E-350G (data not shown). The HPV16 E-350G variant contains a polymorphism at residue 83, leucine to valine (L83V), which is associ-ated with the risk of invasive cancers of the cervix in [23,24] [25] European studies . Yamadaet alhave identified five phylogenetic clusters of HPV16 with distinct geographic distributions by analyzing sequences ofE6, L1andLCRregions isolated from cervical samples collected world-wide. HPV16 is the most prevalent HPV type detected inUDT cancer, therefore, different geographic distribution patterns of HPV16-E6 variants with differing copy num-
16 (48) 17 (52)
59 (44) 74 (56)
13 (45) 16 (55)
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DISCUSSION The HPV genome was detected in 56% and 19% of SCCs of the oral cavity and esophagus, respectively, in
Viral load/cell 95% CI 0.022, 0.185 0.028, 0.079 0.010, 0.144 0.058, 61.21 -0.028, 0.233 0.249, 4.705 0.063, 0.256 0.053, 0.274 0.023, 0.222 0.019, 0.799 0.036, 1.737 -0.049, 0.285 0.101, 1.957 0.055, 0.847
E6 variant
In Japan, only theE-350Tand the prototype E-350G variant were detected. The predominant HPV16 variant was E-350G in Pakistani cases. In contrast, the Asian-American variant was more frequently found in Colom-bia, and these differences were statistically significant for both OCs and ECs (P0.048 and = P0.001, respec- < tively). The geometric means of HPV16 were 0.064 and 0.121 per cell for OCs and ECs, respectively, and this difference was not statistically significant (P= 0.552). The HPV16 viral loads were also compared by country and the pres-ence of the HPV16 integrated form and E-350G vari-ant (Table 5). HPV16 in Colombian cases or cases with the E-350G variant tended to show higher viral loads in both OCs and ECs. The geometric means of the virus in OCs were 1.081, 0.147, 0.138 and 0.075 per cell for the E-350G variant, E-350T prototype, Asian-American vari-ant, and Asian variant, respectively. INK4a Comparison ofp16and p53 protein expression in HPV-positive and HPV-negative OCs and ECs suggested INK4a that thep16was affected by the presence expression of the HPV genome in ECs (Table 6). However, the ex-pression of these tumor suppressor genes was not related to HPV status in OCs. It is difficult to deny the possibility that high-risk HPV was harbored in non-cancerous tissue adjacent to HPV-positive carcinoma, therefore, additional paraffin-embed-ded tissues of the 11 HPV-positive ECs from Japan were examined (Table 7). None of the normal esophageal epi-thelia adjacent to HPV-positive EC harbored a high-risk type of HPV genome.
5300
Esophagus
Pathological features 2 Histological grading Well-differentiated Moderate differentiation Poor differentiation 3 p53 Positive Negative 4 INK4a p16 Positive Negative 2 Histological grading Well-differentiated Moderate differentiation Poor differentiation 3 p53 Positive Negative 4 INK4a p16 Positive Negative
1 2 2 Pvalues were obtained byχof histological grading wastest. Information missing for 10 human papillomavirus (HPV)-negative and 14 HPV-posi-tive oral carcinomas (OCs), and two HPV-negative esophageal carcinomas 3 (ECs). Tissue specimens were not enough to examinep53in expression two HPV-negative and seven HPV-positive OCs, and two HPV-negative 4INK4a ECs. Tissue specimens were not enough to examinep16expression in two HPV-negative and five HPV-positive OCs, and seven HPV-negative and one HPV-positive ECs.
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42 (33) 86 (67)
16 (53) 14 (47)
0.601
0.038
0.476
0.048
Oral cavity
Cancer site
Table 6 Clinicopathological features of oral and esophageal carcinomasn(%)
E6 variant
Integrated form
Esophagus Country
Integrated form
1 P values were obtained by Kruskal-Wallis test or Mann-WhitneyU test. CI: Confidence interval; GM: Geometric means.
17 (81) 3 (14) 1 (5)
20 (77) 5 (19) 1 (4)
11 (38) 18 (62)
42 (31) 64 (48) 28 (21)
10 (29) 25 (71)
0.831
0.427
10 (32) 16 (52) 5 (16)
Table 5 Viral load of human papillomavirus 16 by country, physical status, and human papillomavirus 16 E6 variants
Castillo Aet al. HPV in gastrointestinal tumors
n
0.033
1 Pvalue
All Japan Pakistan Colombia Absent Present E-350G Others All Japan Pakistan Colombia Absent Present E-350G Others
Oral cavity Country
Table 7 Detection of human papillomavirus genome in adja-cent normal epithelium of human papillomavirus 16-positive Japanese esophageal carcinomas
Case ID/sex/age EC4/M/48
EC5/M/67
EC7/F/75
EC10/M/66
EC11/F/47
EC16/M/65
EC28/M/61
EC35/F/64
EC61/M/64
EC63/M/66
EC67/M/49
ID # of block 39 1 32 1 40 14 37 20 1 8 1 14 1 15 41 35 1 5 1 13 24 12 1 6 20 22 26 1 18 1 10 41 55 55 12 20 25 28 33 12 28 9 3 11 16 1 5 1
Histology SCC SCC SCC Normal Normal SCC SCC SCC SCC Normal SCC SCC SCC Normal SCC SCC Normal Normal SCC SCC SCC Normal SCC Normal SCC Normal SCC Normal Normal SCC Normal SCC Dysplasia Normal SCC SCC Normal
HPV + -+ --+ + + -+ + --+ + ---+ -+ -+ + + -+ --+ -+ --+ --
HPV type 16
16
16, 51 16 6
6 16, 51
6 16
16
6
16, 51 6 16
16, 18
16
51, 68
6
1 Additional esophageal carcinoma specimens analyzed for each patient. ID: Identification; SCC: Squamous cell carcinoma; EC: Esophageal carci-nomal; HPV: Human papillomavirus.
bers might affect the detection rate of HPV genome if different methods for HPV detection were applied. HPV involvement in UDT carcinogenesis is unclear. In the present study, a significant positive association INK4a between the presence of the HPV genome and p16expression was observed in ECs but not in OCs (Table INK4a 6). In cervical carcinomas, p16expression is protein [26] known to be upregulated by HPV, where retinoblas-toma protein is inhibited by HPV E7 protein, causing the INK4a release of E2F protein, which in turn leads to p16upregulation. Although the results of the present study suggest an etiological involvement of HPV in EC devel-opment, this association should be confirmed. HPV detected in normal specimens or low-grade squa-mous intraepithelial lesions has been found not to be [27] integrated into the host genome . However, it has been [19,28] reported in many studies that HPV16 is often inte-grated into the host genome in cervical carcinomas and
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5301
Castillo Aet al. HPV in gastrointestinal tumors
is frequently accompanied by episomal HPV. These find-ings suggest an etiological involvement of HPV when in-tegrated into the host genome. In most HPV16-positive cases in the present study, the viral DNA was integrated into the host genome. This finding is compatible with studies conducted in areas of high EC incidence in Chi-na, in which > 90% of high-risk HPV detected in ECs [29,30] was found to be integrated into the host genome . In Japanese ECs, high-risk type HPV genomes were not detected in surrounding normal epithelial tissues of HPV-positive ECs (Table 7). This result is similar to a [31] recent study from Australia , showing that none of the 55 samples of normal esophageal squamous epithelium were HPV-positive. Although we cannot deny the pos-sibility that tumor cells are more susceptible to the infec-tion with high-risk type of HPV, these observations in-dicate a possible association between HPV infection and carcinogenesis in some ECs. The geometric mean HPV16 load in ECs was 0.121 per cell in the current study. It is unlikely, however, that the low viral load was a consequence of formalin fixation because the parallel amplification of a housekeeping gene (β-globinamplifiablethe amount of ) gave an estimate of genomic DNA in individual samples. Our findings are compatible with Chinese studies on ECs that have re-[32] ported a viral load of < 1 to 157 copies per cell . The prevalence of HPV was evidently higher in OCs than in ECs (P< 0.001). HPV typing analysis established that HPV16 was most common among SCCs with con-comitant HPV infection. In fact, HPV16 was the only high-risk type detected in OCs. In ECs, although HPV16 was the most frequently detected, other high-risk HPV types such as HPV18, 45 and 51 were also detected. In this study, multiple infection with different HPV types was observed in 37% of HPV-positive ECs, but multiple infection was not found in OCs. Double infection with different HPV types in ECs has also been reported in [33] a study from China. These findings are in contrast to those reported in a Japanese study that showed multiple-type HPV infection in 17/30 (56.7%) specimens of the [34] oral cavity mucosa . Infection with multiple HPV types is not rare in cervi-cal samples. Studies have shown that 10% or more of clini-[35,36] cal lesions contain at least two different HPV types . In-terestingly, the prevalence of multiple infections has been reported to decrease with increasing severity of cervical [37,38] neoplasia . A study has shown that the frequency of multiple-type HPV infection is related to many factors, such as age and sexual behavior, as well as to variables affecting immune response, e.g., immunosuppressive con-[38] ditions andHLAIn the present study, ECsgenotypes . with multiple-type HPV infection did not exhibit dif-ferent clinicopathological features from ECs with single [39] HPV infection. Silinset alhave suggested that infection with HPV6 might interfere with HPV16 in terms of cervical carcinogenesis. In the present study, there were three ECs with co-infection of HPV16 and HPV6. These cases did not have any common clinical features.
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