Environment and human health. Joint EEA-JRC report.
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2013
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La santé humaine et le bien-être sont intimement liés à la qualité de l'environnement. Ce rapport, produit conjointement par l'Agence européenne pour l'environnement (AEE) et le Centre commun de recherche de la Commission européenne (CCR), décrit un certain nombre de questions environnementales ayant une influence directe sur la santé et le bien-être.
Part (P), Jarosinska (D). Copenhague. http://temis.documentation.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/document.xsp?id=Temis-0079106
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Part (P), Jarosinska (D). Copenhague. http://temis.documentation.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/document.xsp?id=Temis-0079106
Publié par
Publié le
01 janvier 2013
Licence :
Paternité, pas d'utilisation commerciale, partage des conditions initiales à l'identique
Langue
English
Poids de l'ouvrage
7 Mo
EEA Report No 5/2013 Report EUR 25933 EN
Environment and human health
Joint EEA-JRC report
ISSN 1725-9177
EEA Report No 5/2013 Report EUR 25933 EN
Environment and human health
Joint EEA-JRC report
Cover design: EEA Cover photo © istockphoto/Aleksandar Nakic Left photo © ImaginAIR/EEA (Stella Carbone) Right photo © istockphoto/Dean Mitchell Layout: EEA/Pia Schmidt
Copyright notice © European Environment Agency, 2013, European Union, 2013 Reproduction is authorised, provided the source is acknowledged, save where otherwise stated.
Information about the European Union is available on the Internet. It can be accessed through the Europa server (www.europa.eu).
Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2013
ISBN 978-92-9213-392-4 ISSN 1725-9177 doi:10.2800/9092 JRC80702
Environmental production This publication is printed according to high environmental standards.
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European Environment Agency Kongens Nytorv 6 1050 Copenhagen K Denmark Tel.: + 45 33 36 71 00 Fax: + 45 33 36 71 99 Web: eea.europa.eu Enquiries: eea.europa.eu/enquiries
Contents
Contents
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... 5 Preface ....................................................................................................................... 7
Executive summary .................................................................................................... 8
Part I Introduction .................................................................................... 121 Setting the scene ..................................................................................... 12 1.1 The European environment has improved but challenges to health remain ...............12 1.2 European citizens live longer, but the ageing population faces several healthchallenges.............................................................................................13 1.3 Health, environment, and social aspects are interconnected...................................14 1.4 Methods to address complex and multi-causal interactions need to be improved.......15 1.5 The EU 2020 strategy provides an overarching policy framework ............................17
Part II Thematic chapters ........................................................................... 192 Chemicals ................................................................................................ 19
2.1 Global chemical production is on the rise.............................................................19 2.2 Understanding of health impacts of exposure to chemicals remains limited ..............21 2.3 Heavy metal emissions have decreased, but remain a problem for environmentandhealth....................................................................................21 2.4 Persistent chemicals and endocrine disruptors are of increasing concern..................24 2.5 'Green chemistry' may provide sustainable alternatives.........................................25 2.6 Approaches to risk assessment need to be revised to better reflect the healthrisksofchemicals...................................................................................26 2.7 Environmental and human monitoring can be improved to provide early signals of health impacts...........................................................................27 2.8 European policies regarding chemicals focus primarily on 'end of pipe' solutions .......29
3 Outdoor air .......................................................................................................... 30 3.1 Air pollutant concentrations are still too high and affect the health of Europeancitizens.............................................................................................30 3.2 The knowledge of air pollution-related health impacts is growing… .........................31 3.3…butimportantgapsstillexist...........................................................................35 3.4 Some population groups are more vulnerable to the health effects of air pollution ....36 3.5 Reducing air pollution brings public health benefits ...............................................36 3.6 Air quality policies are well-developed but based mainly on single pollutantapproaches........................................................................................39 4 Indoor air ............................................................................................................ 40 4.1 Indoor air is a significant source of exposure to chemicals .....................................40 4.2 Biological pollution is a major factor in indoor air quality .......................................41 4.3 Assessment of direct health impacts of indoor air pollution remains challenging........41 4.4 EU-funded research delivers new tools for improving indoor air quality....................42 4.5 Policy frameworks for tackling indoor air quality are largely lacking.........................43
Environment and human health
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Contents
5 Radon .................................................................................................................. 46 5.1 Radon is the second cause of lung cancer after smoking........................................46 5.2 Policies focus on monitoring and action plans in radon-prone areas.........................46
6 Water .................................................................................................................. 48 6.1 Poor water quality poses risks to human health....................................................48 6.2 Drinking water quality issues still occur, particularly in small-scale supplies..............49 6.3Bathingwaterqualityhasimproved….................................................................49 6.4…butcertainpollutantsremainofconcern...........................................................51 6.5 Water scarcity is an emerging challenge..............................................................51 6.6 EU water legislation is well advanced and takes an increasingly systemic approach ...51
7 Noise ................................................................................................................... 54 7.1 Noise affects the health, quality of life and well-being of many Europeans ...............55 7.2Effectiveabatementmeasuresareavailable........................................................55 7.3Publicawarenessneedstobeincreased..............................................................56 7.4 Noise legislation is in place, but requires better data on human exposure ................57
8 Electromagnetic fields ......................................................................................... 58 8.1 The health effects of electromagnetic fields are controversial .................................58 8.2 Children could be particularly vulnerable to radiofrequency EMF .............................59 8.3 Policies focus on exposure limits for devices ........................................................59
9 Ultraviolet radiation ............................................................................................ 60 9.1 Exposure to excess UV radiation increases risk of skin cancer ................................60 9.2 Changing lifestyles have affected exposure to UV radiation ....................................60 9.3Policyoptions:increasingawarenessiskey.........................................................62
10 Nanotechnology................................................................................................... 63 10.1 Nanotechnology is booming...............................................................................63 10.2 Information on exposure pathways is needed ......................................................63 10.3 Inclusive governance can help identify and manage risks ......................................64
11 Green spaces and the natural environment ......................................................... 65 11.1 Access to green spaces offers multiple benefits, especially to urban dwellers............65 11.2 Contacts with nature improve psychological well-being and social cohesion..............67 11.3 Easy access to green spaces encourages physical activity outdoors.........................69 11.4 Improving local environmental quality is an effective way of reducing hazards .........69 11.5 There is a need for adequate tools and methods ..................................................70 11.6 Policy frameworks in relation to green space are largely lacking .............................70
12 Climate change .................................................................................................... 71 12.1Floodriskisincreasing.....................................................................................72 12.2 Heat waves and cold spells are a threat to vulnerable population groups .................72 12.3 Climate change affects health issues related to air quality .....................................74 12.4 Diseases may spread more easily as a result of climate change ..............................74 12.5 Climate change is likely to affect food and water safety.........................................77 12.6 Climate change mitigation has co-benefits for health ............................................77 12.7 Global mitigation measures are accompanied by regional and national adaptation strategies........................................................................................78
Part III Final reflections .............................................................................. 81 13 Analytical and policy considerations ........................................................ 81
13.1 Complex environmental and health challenges require systemic policy approaches ...81 13.2 An ecosystem perspective is helpful in analysing complex system interactions..........81 13.3 Synergies and trade-offs of policy measures need to be considered… ......................81 13.4 …and global aspects of resource use need to be addressed ....................................83 13.5 Governance strategies will critically depend on sound and accessible information......83 13.6 Final reflection.................................................................................................84
References ............................................................................................................... 86
Environment and human health
Acknowledgements
Editors
Peter Pärt (JRC, on secondment to EEA), Dorota Jarosinska (EEA) and Ybele Hoogeveen (EEA).
Assisting editors in JRC
Nikolaus Stilianakis and Diana Rembges.
Lead authors
Peter Pärt (JRC/EEA) and Dorota Jarosinska (EEA).
Contributors Setting the scene: Dorota Jarosinska (EEA), Peter Pärt (JRC/EEA), Ybele Hoogeveen (EEA) and Nikolaus Stilianakis (JRC).
Chemicals: Peter Pärt (JRC/EEA) and Dorota Jarosinska (EEA).
Outdoor air: Peter Pärt (JRC/EEA), Dorota Jarosinska (EEA), Emile De Saeger (JRC), Rita van Dingenen (JRC), Bo Larsen (JRC) and Giorgio Martini (JRC).
Indoor air: Stylianos Kephalopoulos (JRC), Dimitrios Kotzias (JRC) and Dorota Jarosinska (EEA).
Radon: Peter Pärt (JRC/EEA), Marc De Cort (JRC), Tore Tollefsen (JRC) and Valeria Gruber (JRC).
Water: Dorota Jarosinska (EEA).
Noise: Stylianos Kephalopoulos (JRC) and Colin Nugent (EEA).
Acknowledgements
Electromagnetic fields: Carlos del Pozo (JRC) and Peter Pärt (JRC/EEA). Ultraviolet radiation: Diana Rembges (JRC), Peter Pärt (JRC/EEA) and Jean Verdebout (JRC). Nanotechnology: Karin Aschberger (JRC), Frans M. Christensen (COWI A/S, Denmark), Christian Micheletti (Veneto Nanotech, Italy), David Rickerby (JRC), Birgit Sokull-Klüttgen (JRC) and Hermann Stamm (JRC).
Green spaces and natural environment: Dorota Jarosinska (EEA).
Climate change: Dorota Jarosinska (EEA), Jonathan Suk (ECDC), Jan Sememza (ECDC), Bertrand Sudre (ECDC), Tanja Wolf (WHO), Valentin Foltescu (EEA), John van Aardenne (EEA), Hans-Martin Füssel (EEA) and Nikolaus Stilianakis (JRC).
Analytical and policy considerations: Ybele Hoogeveen (EEA), Dorota Jarosinska (EEA) and Peter Pärt (JRC/EEA).
External reviewers
Maria Albin (University of Lund, Sweden), Perluigi Cooco (University of Cagliari, Italy, member of the EEA Scientific Committee), Argelia Castaño (Instituto Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain), Lora Fleming (University of Exeter, the United Kingdom), Wojciech Hanke (Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine, Poland), Tom Hutchinson (CEFAS, the United Kingdom), Genon Jensen (HEAL, Belgium), Anne Knol (RIVM, the Netherlands), Sylvia Medina (French Institute for Public Health Surveillance (InVS), France), George Morris (NHS Health Scotland), Anna Paldy (National Institute of Environmental Health, Hungary), Luciana Sinisi (Instituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricerca Ambientale, Italy), Birgit Staatsen (RIVM, the Netherlands), Dave
Environment and human health
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Acknowledgements
Stone (Natural England, the United Kingdom), Ingvar Thorn (Stockholm, Sweden).
Oganisations:ANSES France (through Salma Elreedy), WHO-Europe (through Francesca Racioppi), UBA, Germany (through Marinne Rappolder), European Commission DG SANCO (through Charles Price) and European Commission DG ENV (through Pascal Le Grand).
6Environment and human health
EEA staff
Valentin Leonard Foltescu, André Jol, Peter Kristensen, Anke Lükewille and Alfredo Sánchez Vicente.
Preface
Human health and well-being are intimately linked to environmental quality. This has been recognised for decades amongst policymakers in Europe, and most recently appears as a cornerstone in the European Commission's proposal for the 7th Environment Action Programme. This report, produced jointly by the European Environment Agency and the European Commission's Joint Research Centre, outlines a number of environmental issues with a direct influence on people's health and well-being and is a follow-up and update to the 2005 EEA/JRC report.
In the 8 years that have passed, the political context of environment and health has evolved. As highlighted in EEA'sThe European Environment — state and outlook 2010the policy focus is increasingly shifting from single environmental pollution issues towards systemic challenges regarding the maintenance of ecosystem resilience and the delivery of ecosystem services to human society. Climate change is a good example with its combined impacts on food and water security, heat waves, flooding risks and potential spread of diseases.
Where problem detection and measures in the environment and health area have typically been based on dose-effect studies of individual polluting substances and stressors, this new report makes the case for a more integrated take on health issues, acknowledging the complex inter-linkages between resource-use patterns, environmental pressures,
Preface
multiple exposures and disease burden, as well as the key role that social inequalities play. It also touches upon emerging issues resulting from long-term environmental and socio-economic trends, such as climate change, lifestyle and consumption changes and the rapid uptake and application of new chemicals and technologies. As such, it complements the recent EEA publication Late lessons from early warnings; science, precaution and innovation, which makes a strong argument for precautionary science in political decision-making, allowing us to strike a better balance between using economic opportunities and avoiding disproportionate risks to the environment and human health and well-being. Environment and health is not just 'an aspect' of environmental policy, it is at the heart of it. In fact, it is central to Europe's ambition to move towards a Green Economy. With this report, taking stock of the most pertinent environment and health issues, and combining the expertise of our two institutes in environmental reporting and scientific research, we hope to contribute to this goal.
Jacqueline McGlade, Maria Betti, Executive Director Director, European Environment Institute of Environment Agency and Sustainability, JRC European Commission
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Executive summary
Executive summary
In 2010, the comprehensiveEuropean environment — state and outlook 2010report showed that environmental policies have delivered substantial progress in improving the state of the environment in Europe. However, it also stressed that major environmental challenges remain.
Water and air pollution have declined but not enough to achieve good ecological quality in all water bodies or to ensure good air quality in all urban areas. Widespread exposure to multiple pollutants and chemicals and concerns about long-term damage to human health together imply the need for more integral and precautionary approaches.
Given the complex links between environmental challenges, identification of environmental risks to human health and well-being should go beyond immediate and individual health impacts of a few well-known stressors. Multiple exposures, long-term impacts, inequalities and resource use patterns should also be addressed.
It is in this context that this EEA-JRC reference report on environment and health has been produced. It tries to capture the most pertinent environmental problems and their policy implications, as identified and addressed in on-going work at the JRC and EEA.
Part Idiscusses the evolving understanding of environmental and health relationships, from focusing on isolated, specific issues, towards increasing recognition of highly complex, multifactorial interdependencies.
Key points:
•The quality of the environment in Europe has improved considerably over recent decades with benefits to human health. EU citizens live longer than in many other parts of the world, but health challenges of the ageing population may increase due to lifestyle changes and environmental megatrends (climate change, depletion of natural resources and the disruption of ecosystems services).
Environment and human health
•Non-communicable diseases represent the greatest burden of mortality and morbidity in the EU. These diseases have multifactorial backgrounds that are not sufficiently understood. Exposure to air pollution, noise, poor quality water, chemicals, radiation, biological agents, and otherwise degraded environments are important components. •Considerable health inequalities exist. Life expectancy and the number of Healthy Life Years differ substantially between Member States and between genders. Evidence from European countries indicates that low-income populations are more exposed to degraded environments.
•A more integrated analytical framework is needed to fully identify the environmental factors that contribute to the burden of disease and at the same time address the interactions between the social, ecological, and physical aspects of our environment. Part IIpresents 11 thematic chapters, addressing several environmental issues which, currently and in the future, are likely to affect human health and well-being in Europe. Key points:
Chemicals
•Humans are exposed to a wide and increasing range of chemicals. Whilst policy action is taken to assess and mitigate impacts on human health, large knowledge gaps still exist. The effects of long-term and low-dose exposure to mixtures of chemicals, particularly in young children, are poorly understood. •The environmental and potential human health impacts of chemicals used in large volumes, including pharmaceuticals and some compounds used in personal care products deserve more attention, especially those with suspected endocrine disrupting properties.
